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The interaction between polyethylene microplastics and ciprofloxacin on inducing hepatotoxicity in Carassius auratus via the gut-liver axis
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Researchers co-exposed crucian carp to polyethylene microplastics and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin and assessed liver toxicity through the gut-liver axis. The combination caused greater hepatic injury than either contaminant alone—disrupting gut microbiota, increasing intestinal permeability, and amplifying liver inflammation—highlighting synergistic toxicity when fish are exposed to both antibiotic and plastic pollution.
Microplastics (MPs) can accumulate and enrich antibiotics in aquatic environments, with their interactions exacerbating threats to aquatic organisms and complicating hepatotoxicity. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the effects of single or combined exposure to polyethylene MPs and ciprofloxacin (CIP) on hepatic injury in crucian carp, and to reveal the potential gut-liver axis toxicity mechanisms. The results showed that MPs enhanced the bioaccumulation of CIP, which increased with increasing MPs concentration. Co-exposure induced extensive eosinophilic necrosis and localised hepatocyte clustering in hepatocytes, alongside severe vacuolization and lymphocytic infiltration in intestinal cells. Glutamate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities, and total antioxidant capacity levels in the liver were significantly elevated, whilst glutamyltransferase activities were suppressed by the co-exposure. High-concentration MPs in combination with CIP significantly enriched the pathways of amino acid metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and primary bile acid biosynthesis in the liver. Moreover, co-exposure markedly suppressed the abundance of Cetobacterium while promoting that of Gemmobacter and Bosea. The imbalances in Bacteroides and pathogens (Aeromonas and Bose) are closely associated with related products in primary bile acid biosynthesis and glycerophospholipid metabolism pathways. These findings underscore that exposure to MPs and CIP induces hepatitis and reveal the pivotal role of the indirect gut-liver axis in elucidating the potential mechanisms underlying hepatotoxicity induced by co-exposure, thereby furnishing critical evidence for the holistic assessment of health hazards posed by these pollutants.
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Gut microbiota related response of Oryzias melastigma to combined exposure of polystyrene microplastics and tetracycline
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Researchers exposed estuarine fish to polystyrene microplastics and the antibiotic tetracycline, both alone and in combination, for four weeks. The combined exposure caused more severe disruption to gut bacteria and liver tissue than either pollutant alone, with microplastics appearing to worsen the effects of tetracycline. The study suggests that the co-occurrence of microplastics and antibiotics in coastal waters may pose greater ecological risks than either contaminant by itself.
Combined impacts of microplastics and cadmium on the liver function, immune response, and intestinal microbiota of crucian carp (Carassius carassius)
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Researchers exposed crucian carp to microplastics and cadmium, both alone and together, and found the combination caused more severe liver damage and immune disruption than either pollutant alone. Co-exposure also significantly altered the fish's gut bacteria after 21 days. This is concerning because microplastics and heavy metals frequently co-occur in polluted waterways, potentially amplifying harm to aquatic life.
Gut–Liver Axis Mediates the Combined Hepatointestinal Toxicity of Triclosan and Polystyrene Microplastics in Mice: Implications for Human Co-Exposure Risks
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Mice co-exposed to the antimicrobial triclosan and polystyrene microplastics showed markedly worse intestinal and liver damage than those exposed to either contaminant alone, with gut microbiome disruption identified as a key mediating mechanism.
Biomicroplastics and Antibiotics: A Toxic Cocktail for Fatty Liver Disease in Marine Medaka.
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Marine medaka fish co-exposed to aged polylactic acid (PLA) biomicroplastics and the antibiotic sulfamethazine developed fatty liver disease more severely than with either contaminant alone, demonstrating synergistic toxicity. The study highlighted that bioplastic debris combined with antibiotics poses a serious health threat to marine organisms.
The combined effects of polypropylene microplastics and sulfonamide antibiotics on the gut-liver axis of Gymnocypris przewalskii
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A multi-omics study examined combined exposure of Gymnocypris przewalskii fish from Qinghai Lake to polypropylene microplastics and sulfonamide antibiotics, finding that co-exposure disrupted metabolic pathways and immune responses more severely than either contaminant alone.
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