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The Cytotoxicity of Biodegradable Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Current Status and Research Prospects
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This review summarizes what is currently known about the toxicity of biodegradable micro- and nanoplastics to human cells. Researchers found that outside of industrial composting facilities, biodegradable plastics can persist and fragment into small particles that may be just as harmful as conventional plastic particles. The study highlights that the label "biodegradable" does not necessarily mean these plastics are safer once they break down into micro- and nanoscale fragments.
The growth in the production and use of biodegradable plastics, positioned as an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional polymers, has led to an increase in their distribution in the environment. However, in conditions other than industrial composting facilities, biodegradable polymers can persist for a long time, fragment, and form biodegradable micro- and nanoplastics (BioMNP) with potential toxicity. Unlike traditional microplastics, the impact of BioMNP on human health has been poorly studied. This review summarises the available data on the cytotoxicity of BioMNP, including mechanisms of interaction with human cells, routes of entry into the body, induction of inflammation, oxidative stress, and cellular dysfunction. Particular attention is paid to the interaction of microplastics with cells of various body systems, including the digestive, respiratory, immune, and urogenital systems, as well as with the skin. The identified knowledge gaps highlight the need for further research to assess the risks associated with the impact of BioMNP on humans and to develop safer forms of biopolymers. Among biodegradable plastics, PLA-based particles tend to exhibit stronger cytotoxic effects. Nanoplastics generally induce more severe cellular responses than microplastics. Organs such as the liver and lungs appear particularly vulnerable.
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Environmental release behavior, cell toxicity and intracellular distribution of novel biodegradable plastic materials
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Researchers tested five types of commercially available biodegradable plastics and found that several still released microplastics and showed significant toxicity to human cells, including liver and intestinal cells. Polylactic acid (PLA), often marketed as an eco-friendly alternative, showed higher environmental mobility and concerning toxic effects. The study also showed that human immune cells actively engulfed and absorbed biodegradable microplastic particles, suggesting that 'biodegradable' does not necessarily mean safe for human health.
Biodegradable Microplastics: A Review on the Interaction with Pollutants and Influence to Organisms
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This review examines the environmental behavior and toxicity of biodegradable microplastics, noting that natural conditions rarely allow complete degradation and that biodegradable plastics may fragment into microplastics more rapidly than conventional plastics. Under some conditions biodegradable microplastics may pose greater risks to organisms than conventional microplastics, particularly in combination with adsorbed pollutants.
The hidden costs of biodegradable plastics: Environmental persistence, microplastic toxicity, and implications for sustainable development
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"Biodegradable" doesn't always mean it actually breaks down quickly in the real world, this review of existing research finds that many so-called eco-friendly plastics still break into tiny micro- and nanoplastic particles that can stick around in the environment for a long time. These particles have been linked to inflammation, hormone disruption, and cell damage in animals, meaning the "green" label on some products may be giving people false confidence about their safety and environmental impact.
Microbial degradation and the persistence paradox of conventional and biodegradable microplastics
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"Biodegradable" plastics are often marketed as an eco-friendly alternative to regular plastic, but this review of existing research finds that in real-world conditions, many of them don't actually fully break down—they just crumble into smaller microplastic pieces, just like conventional plastic does. This matters because these lingering microplastic fragments (regardless of what type of plastic they came from) can end up in soil, water, food, and ultimately our bodies, meaning switching to "biodegradable" products may not reduce microplastic exposure as much as people assume.
Ecotoxicity of Biodegradable Microplastics and Bio-based Microplastics: A Review of in vitro and in vivo Studies
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This review examines whether "eco-friendly" biodegradable and bio-based plastics are truly safer than conventional plastics when they break down into microplastics. The findings show that many biodegradable plastics, including popular types like PLA and PBAT, can still cause harm to plants and aquatic organisms, suggesting that simply switching to biodegradable materials does not eliminate microplastic risks.
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