Integrated analysis of microplastics in human gallbladder and bile using multimodal detection techniques

Microplastics (MPs) have raised global concerns due to their widespread environmental presence and potential impacts on human health. In this study, we performed a detailed analysis of MPs in human gallbladder and bile samples using three analytical techniques: pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, laser direct infrared spectroscopy (LD-IR), and scanning electron microscopy. A total of 23 samples were collected from patients undergoing surgery for gallstones or gallbladder polyps. MPs were detected in all samples, with polyethylene (PE) being the most abundant polymer. On average, PE was found at concentrations of 13.2 µg/g in gallbladder tissue and 12.9 µg/g in bile. Other identified polymers included polyvinyl chloride, polyamide 66, and polypropylene. LD-IR results showed that most particles were between 20 and 50 µm in size, accounting for approximately 71.2 % of particles in gallbladder samples and 70 % in bile samples. Using multimodal detection techniques, we characterized MPs in human gallbladder and bile, including their polymer types and particle sizes. These findings provide foundational data for future investigations into MP-related health risks in the hepatobiliary system.