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Biodegradation and disintegration of expanded polystyrene by land snails Achatina fulica
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Researchers found that the land snail Achatina fulica can ingest expanded polystyrene foam and break it down, with each snail consuming about 18.5 mg over four weeks and achieving a 30.7% mass reduction in egested particles. Chemical analysis confirmed partial biodegradation with the formation of oxidized intermediate compounds, and the snails' gut microbiome shifted significantly after polystyrene ingestion. The study suggests that soil invertebrates like land snails may play a meaningful role in the environmental fate and partial breakdown of polystyrene plastic pollution.
Despite increasing evidence of widespread plastic pollution in soil, it remains largely unknown about the fate of plastic influenced by soil animals. In this study, ingestion and biodegradation capability of expanded polystyrene (PS) foam was investigated in a globally distributed soil invertebrate, Achatina fulica. After 4-week exposure, 18.5 ± 2.9 mg polystyrene was ingested per snail, and egested microplastics (1.343 ± 0.625 mm) in feces with significant mass loss of mean 30.7%. Gel permeation chromatography analysis indicated a significant increase in weight-average molecular weight (M) and number-average molecular weight (M) of feces-residual PS, indicating limited extent depolymerization. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and proton nuclear magnetic resonance confirmed the formation of functional groups of oxidized intermediates. Suppression of gut microbes with oxytetracycline did not affect the depolymerization, indicating the independence of gut microbes. High-throughput sequencing analysis revealed significant shifts in the gut microbiome after ingestion of PS, with an increase of family Enterobacteriaceae, Sphingobacteriaceae, and Aeromonadaceae, suggesting that gut microorganisms were associated with PS biodegradation. These findings suggest that plastic litter can be disintegrated into microplastics and partially biodegraded by A. fulica, which highlights the significance of soil animals for the fate of plastic and its biodegradation in soil environments.
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Researchers synthesized evidence from 2000–2025 on how land snails interact with soil microplastics, finding that radular abrasion and digestive processes can mechanically fragment and partially oxidize polymers like polystyrene, potentially increasing microplastic bioavailability to soil microbial communities, though enzymatic evidence and field-scale data remain scarce.
Dynamic fate of polystyrene microplastics in terrestrial snails through dietary exposure: accumulation, excretion, and molecular impacts
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Polystyrene microplastics fed to edible snails (Achatina fulica) accumulated primarily in the digestive gland, with smaller 2 µm particles causing greater oxidative damage — a 177% surge in lipid peroxidation — and more disruption to gut microbiota than 20 µm particles. Because these snails are consumed as food in many regions, the study highlights a direct pathway for microplastics and associated toxicity to transfer up the food chain to humans.
Biodegradation and disintegration of expanded polystyrene by sphaeromatid isopods Sphaeroma via their gut bacteria
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Researchers discovered that wood-boring marine isopods (Sphaeroma) actively gnaw, ingest, and partially digest expanded polystyrene foam used in aquaculture floats. Each isopod consumed about 4.4 milligrams of polystyrene over 7 days while generating approximately 25,000 microplastic particles through fragmentation. Gut bacteria from the genera Exiguobacterium and Brevibacterium were identified as key players in polystyrene degradation, though the overall process creates significant microplastic pollution.
Biodegradation of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Tenebrionidae Larvae
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Researchers examined the biodegradation of polystyrene by Tenebrionidae beetle larvae, testing the ability of plastic-eating mealworm larvae to break down the highly stable, hydrophobic polymer. The study characterized polymer molecular weight changes, gut microbiome contributions, and metabolic byproducts, demonstrating that larval gut bacteria play a key role in PS depolymerization.
Soil Invertebrates Generate Microplastics From Polystyrene Foam Debris
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Researchers demonstrated that four common soil invertebrates—crickets, isopods, beetle larvae, and snails—can physically fragment polystyrene foam into microplastics, revealing that soil organisms actively contribute to microplastic generation rather than just being affected by it.
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