Review of the toxic effects and mechanisms of polystyrene micro/nanoplastics across multiple animal species

• Focuses on conducting a comprehensive analysis of the toxicity associated with polystyrene micro/nanoplastics (PS MNPs);. • Reviews toxicity of PS MNPs in marine animals, freshwater animals, soil animals, and mammals;. • Summarizes toxicity mechanisms of PS MNPs on the digestive, respiratory, nervous, reproductive, and circulatory systems in mammals. Polystyrene (PS) plastics, known for their high light transmittance, transparency, electrical insulation, and low thermal conductivity, are extensively utilized in the production of foam packaging, building insulation materials, disposable tableware, and electrical products. Improper disposal of plastics and their degradation in the environment have led to the widespread presence of polystyrene micro/nanoplastics (PS MNPs) in the atmosphere, seawater, freshwater, soil, and food sources. This study systematically reviews the toxic effects of PS MNPs across various dimensions, with a particular focus on their impact on marine animals, freshwater animals, soil animals, terrestrial invertebrates, and mammals. The objective of this study is to elucidate the potential mechanisms of toxicity associated with PS MNPs and to investigate their effects on animals at the individual, organ, tissue, cellular, and molecular levels.