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Breastfeeding in a Polluted World: Perspective on the Properties of Breast Milk and the Need for Protection
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This review examines the composition and protective properties of breast milk as a biological fluid evolved to support infant health, while raising concern about the growing detection of environmental contaminants including microplastics and endocrine disruptors in breast milk.
Breast milk (BM) is a unique biological fluid that represents the optimal nutritional source for infants, uniquely adapted through millions of years of evolution. BM is not only a nutritional fluid but a dynamic biological system, evolved to provide optimal growth, immune protection, and neurodevelopmental support. Its unique composition-including macronutrients, micronutrients, bioactive molecules, and stem cells-makes it essential in early life. Breastfeeding further promotes psychological well-being, secure attachment, and maternal-infant bonding. Yet, in recent decades, concern has grown over environmental contaminants in BM, including endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and micro/nanoplastics. These pollutants have the potential to disrupt endocrine signaling, neurodevelopment, metabolic programming, and immune development, thereby undermining the natural advantages of breastfeeding. Therefore, a better understanding of the unique features of BM, while investigating the effects of these contaminants, is important for safeguarding maternal and infant health. This perspective article highlights the current knowledge on BM and indicates the need for further research. It also emphasizes the need for appropriate public health measures aimed at reducing exposure to pollutants and lowering associated risks, as well as preventive strategies to protect breast milk and breastfeeding in such a changing environment, as it is uniquely designed to promote the health of children.
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Human Milk—The Biofluid That Nourishes Infants from the First Day of Life
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This review highlights that human breast milk, while being the ideal nutrition for infants, is now subject to contamination by environmental pollutants including microplastics. The presence of microplastics in breast milk means that infants may be exposed to plastic particles from the very first days of life. The authors call for new monitoring methods to better understand the extent of contamination and its potential effects on infant development.
Micro problems with Macro Consequences: Accumulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Microplastics in Human Breast Milk and in Human Milk Substitutes
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This review examines the co-occurrence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and microplastics in human breast milk and infant formula, highlighting that infants — one of the most vulnerable populations — may be exposed to both chemical and particle-based contaminants through feeding. The authors stress that the health effects of microplastic ingestion in early life remain largely unknown, making this a critical gap in understanding long-term developmental risks.
Human Milk, Microplastics and Children's Health: An Equation to Be Solved
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This review examined microplastic contamination in human breast milk, summarizing evidence of widespread MP detection and discussing the potential health consequences for infants whose primary food source in the first two years of life may contain plastic particles.
Micro problems with macro consequences: accumulation of persistent organic pollutants and microplastics in human breast milk and in human milk substitutes
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This review examines the presence of persistent organic pollutants and microplastics in both human breast milk and infant formula, raising questions about early-life exposure. Researchers found that these contaminants can transfer to infants during the critical first 1,000 days of development, a period important for long-term health. The study highlights significant gaps in our understanding of how combined exposure to microplastics and organic pollutants during infancy may affect health outcomes.
Detection of Microplastics in Human Breast Milk and Its Association with Changes in Human Milk Bacterial Microbiota
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Researchers detected microplastics in nearly 39% of breast milk samples from 59 mothers, with polypropylene and polyethylene being the most common types found. The presence of microplastics was linked to changes in the bacterial makeup of breast milk, raising concerns about early-life microplastic exposure in infants during breastfeeding.
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