Micro problems with macro consequences: accumulation of persistent organic pollutants and microplastics in human breast milk and in human milk substitutes

Industrial activities provide a modern human lifestyle with advances and comforts in every field. However, such scenario has brought several negative issues. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and a growing plastic usage together with the degradation byproducts, namely microplastics (MPs), are current environmental problems present in every ecosystem, disturbing all forms of life. POPs and MPs are also found in human consumption products including animal and vegetal derivatives, human milk substitutes, and in human breast milk. To date, it is currently unknown what are the effects of MPs and POPs when ingested during the first and most important stage for health programming of the offspring, the first 1000 days of life. Here, we add epidemiological and clinical evidence supporting major sources of POPs and MPs in the ecosystem; and we will precisely describe the effect of POP and MP accumulation in animal- or plant-based infant formulas and human breast milk, modulating health outcomes in the newborn. This review provides a rational to incentive the POP and MP identification in human breast milk and human milk substitutes for avoiding susceptibility to negative health outcomes for the newborn.