Plastic pollution and infectious diseases

The versatility and resistance of plastic allowed for its massive use during the second half of the 20th century. Plastic is hardly degradable and—because waste management is often inefficient—around 55% ends up either in landfill or in nature. Plastic mismanagement thus durably pollutes the environment. Although several studies have pointed out the effect of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution on global health, few have focused on the effect of macroplastics on the proliferation and propagation of infectious diseases and thus on human and livestock health. Plastic debris that holds water can encourage arthropod-borne disease by providing a habitat for some vectors' immature stages and shelter to anthropophilic and medically important species, potentially increasing local vector populations with implications for disease burden. Similarly, by acting as a stagnant water reservoir, waste plastic promotes the development of pathogenic bacteria (such as leptospirosis) and harmful algae. These microorganisms can produce biofilms, coating plastic fragments that can then colonise new water bodies. These concerns point to the need for a transdisciplinary approach to understand and potentially prevent plastic debris from influencing local vector-borne and waterborne diseases.Plastic, considered a miracle product of the 20th century, has become the curse of the 21st century. Its large-scale production only dates back to the 1950s.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar Its annual production exponentially increased from 2 million metric tons (Mt) in 1950 to 381 Mt in 2015.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar The versatility and resistance offered by this synthetic material made it highly attractive for many applications such as in the food sector, where single-use plastic helps to reduce food waste generation by improving food safety and shelf life of the products.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar This low-cost and effective product allowed for a globalised economy, in which fabrication happens further and further away from the consumer, facilitated by more and more wrapping and packing materials.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar As a consequence, the packaging sector is the largest producer of plastic waste, accounting for nearly half of plastic waste generation.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar In 2015, of the 302 Mt of plastic waste generated, 141 Mt were solely attributed to this sector. The plastic waste generated is often of single use, and is characterised by a short use lifetime, usually less than 6 months.4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar In 2015, 20% of global plastic waste was recycled, 25% was incinerated, and 55% was either put into landfills or discarded in nature.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google ScholarMismanagement of plastic waste is generally most evident in middle-income countries, especially in tropical areas (with the addition of China). These countries have usually faced a rapid development and many import large volumes of plastic waste from high-income countries; however, their waste management systems are not able to cope with these large volumes of plastic.3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, 4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar, 5UN Environment ProgrammeSingle-use plastics, a roadmap for sustainability.https://www.unep.org/resources/report/single-use-plastics-roadmap-sustainabilityDate: 2018Date accessed: September 3, 2021Google Scholar If current production and plastic waste management practices continue, about 12 000 Mt of plastic waste will end up in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar, 6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google ScholarGlobal plastic waste mismanagement is causing a serious predicament as it interacts with wildlife in several ways.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, 8Law KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar, 9Rochman CM Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science.Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11041001Google Scholar It can constrict or trap animals, be ingested, or directly affect the environment by its presence, such as by reducing oxygenation in the water, lowering light penetration, or covering coral reefs.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, 8Law KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar Due to its resistance, it is not—or is barely—degradable and instead breaks down into smaller particles that are easily carried away into aquatic environments.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar The ever-growing problem of microplastics and the marine environment is well documented.6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google Scholar, L X S K R and of plastic a 2021; Scholar studies on microplastic and as N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, M P C The of microplastics on and in the marine 2015; Scholar or in a their on human and wildlife L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, M P C The of microplastics on and in the marine 2015; Scholar microplastics were from the to the R and as a for of Lett. 2018; Scholar and fragments be the of a S N vector for plastic to 2022; Scholar The most and of plastic pollution are the and and large plastic or L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar on the effect of plastic debris in marine or aquatic KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar, 9Rochman CM Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science.Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11041001Google Scholar are few studies on macroplastics and their in In this the of plastic pollution on infectious disease studies have the effect of and waste accumulation on infectious disease a K K and waste management for vector in of Scholar, P K of waste on and the Scholar, L L and infectious diseases in a globalised Scholar, S as of and Scholar, L et and in the of Scholar, R et of for during Scholar, et of in for the 2018; Scholar, M in and its waste Scholar, S S M and management in Scholar, et and for with and in Scholar often L and food for disease and a to for Scholar and on waste pollution and accumulation are into in infectious diseases such pollution can directly arthropod-borne diseases by for their The most are and and with The global of the Rev Scholar, D JR to a become a 9: Scholar are to be highly anthropophilic and to in plastic S as of and Scholar, TK of and about of in a 2018; Scholar, by in natural and in areas in the of Scholar, S as of and areas of 2015; Scholar, and the of in a J. 2018; Scholar, D M of in 2015; Scholar, of and in a in Sci. Scholar, et and of during and in 2018; Scholar, of in areas of Scholar, M et of in areas in Scholar, K TK on with to and in Scholar, K V et of in of of 2015; Scholar, et and the of a Scholar by in natural and in areas in the of Scholar, D M of in 2015; Scholar, of and in a in Sci. 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The is for where which is for was able to a on plastic in in L C K In of a of from Scholar, M M AM of microplastics in Scholar, S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar Similarly, a of up can colonise plastic and harmful and bacteria such as for can on plastic M M AM of microplastics in Scholar, S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar this material is for a in the it can as a in infectious and S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar waterborne diseases generated from plastic affect potentially back development and local and potentially et to in Scholar plastic waste to a increase in for a of in countries, attributed to a of and and of and and of highly pathogenic and its in accessed: September 2021Google Scholar to be by Scholar of waterborne diseases is to increase with the increase in plastic plastics a habitat for vector species, by providing a habitat for the development of their immature increasing the of and by providing the with In the of water that in or to plastic waste can waterborne such as or causing a on and livestock the generation of plastic waste, the by these infectious diseases will of the will in S of of Scholar and more effective waste management especially in tropical more will be to infectious global such as plastic can be and waste pollution and management in Environ Chem Eng. 2021; Scholar, et plastic pollution to and Eng J. 2021; Scholar, et and plastic waste management on and of single-use plastics and Scholar and waste management strategies have plastic waste management many middle-income countries have have put their populations with problem in the of arthropod-borne or waterborne plastics a circular JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar that encourage a more and JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar, C of and the of management of waste in Environ Scholar, The of waste Scholar, for the Environ 2016; Scholar, waste management in and to waste management a 126: Scholar, et of waste management by life in Environ 2018; Scholar As plastic pollution the will a the of plastic waste on infectious disease and is This of and is to the of transdisciplinary and approach studies on this the ever-growing of the is and and to the of the and in about the and of the the of the to the and the The versatility and resistance of plastic allowed for its massive use during the second half of the 20th century. Plastic is hardly degradable and—because waste management is often inefficient—around 55% ends up either in landfill or in nature. Plastic mismanagement thus durably pollutes the environment. Although several studies have pointed out the effect of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution on global health, few have focused on the effect of macroplastics on the proliferation and propagation of infectious diseases and thus on human and livestock health. Plastic debris that holds water can encourage arthropod-borne disease by providing a habitat for some vectors' immature stages and shelter to anthropophilic and medically important species, potentially increasing local vector populations with implications for disease burden. Similarly, by acting as a stagnant water reservoir, waste plastic promotes the development of pathogenic bacteria (such as leptospirosis) and harmful algae. These microorganisms can produce biofilms, coating plastic fragments that can then colonise new water bodies. These concerns point to the need for a transdisciplinary approach to understand and potentially prevent plastic debris from influencing local vector-borne and waterborne considered a miracle product of the 20th century, has become the curse of the 21st century. Its large-scale production only dates back to the 1950s.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar Its annual production exponentially increased from 2 million metric tons (Mt) in 1950 to 381 Mt in 2015.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar The versatility and resistance offered by this synthetic material made it highly attractive for many applications such as in the food sector, where single-use plastic helps to reduce food waste generation by improving food safety and shelf life of the products.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar This low-cost and effective product allowed for a globalised economy, in which fabrication happens further and further away from the consumer, facilitated by more and more wrapping and packing materials.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar As a consequence, the packaging sector is the largest producer of plastic waste, accounting for nearly half of plastic waste generation.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar In 2015, of the 302 Mt of plastic waste generated, 141 Mt were solely attributed to this sector. The plastic waste generated is often of single use, and is characterised by a short use lifetime, usually less than 6 months.4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar In 2015, 20% of global plastic waste was recycled, 25% was incinerated, and 55% was either put into landfills or discarded in nature.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar of plastic waste is generally most evident in middle-income countries, especially in tropical areas (with the addition of China). These countries have usually faced a rapid development and many import large volumes of plastic waste from high-income countries; however, their waste management systems are not able to cope with these large volumes of plastic.3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, 4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar, 5UN Environment ProgrammeSingle-use plastics, a roadmap for sustainability.https://www.unep.org/resources/report/single-use-plastics-roadmap-sustainabilityDate: 2018Date accessed: September 3, 2021Google Scholar If current production and plastic waste management practices continue, about 12 000 Mt of plastic waste will end up in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar, 6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google Scholar plastic waste mismanagement is causing a serious predicament as it interacts with wildlife in several ways.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, 8Law KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar, 9Rochman CM Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science.Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11041001Google Scholar It can constrict or trap animals, be ingested, or directly affect the environment by its presence, such as by reducing oxygenation in the water, lowering light penetration, or covering coral reefs.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, 8Law KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar Due to its resistance, it is not—or is barely—degradable and instead breaks down into smaller particles that are easily carried away into aquatic environments.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar The ever-growing problem of microplastics and the marine environment is well documented.6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google Scholar, L X S K R and of plastic a 2021; Scholar studies on microplastic and as N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, M P C The of microplastics on and in the marine 2015; Scholar or in a their on human and wildlife L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, M P C The of microplastics on and in the marine 2015; Scholar microplastics were from the to the R and as a for of Lett. 2018; Scholar and fragments be the of a S N vector for plastic to 2022; Scholar The most and of plastic pollution are the and and large plastic or L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar on the effect of plastic debris in marine or aquatic KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar, 9Rochman CM Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science.Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11041001Google Scholar are few studies on macroplastics and their in In this the of plastic pollution on infectious disease studies have the effect of and waste accumulation on infectious disease a K K and waste management for vector in of Scholar, P K of waste on and the Scholar, L L and infectious diseases in a globalised Scholar, S as of and Scholar, L et and in the of Scholar, R et of for during Scholar, et of in for the 2018; Scholar, M in and its waste Scholar, S S M and management in Scholar, et and for with and in Scholar often L and food for disease and a to for Scholar and on waste Plastic pollution and accumulation are into in infectious diseases such pollution can directly arthropod-borne diseases by for their The most are and and with The global of the Rev Scholar, D JR to a become a 9: Scholar are to be highly anthropophilic and to in plastic S as of and Scholar, TK of and about of in a 2018; Scholar, by in natural and in areas in the of Scholar, S as of and areas of 2015; Scholar, and the of in a J. 2018; Scholar, D M of in 2015; Scholar, of and in a in Sci. Scholar, et and of during and in 2018; Scholar, of in areas of Scholar, M et of in areas in Scholar, K TK on with to and in Scholar, K V et of in of of 2015; Scholar, et and the of a Scholar by in natural and in areas in the of Scholar, D M of in 2015; Scholar, of and in a in Sci. Scholar, K TK on with to and in Scholar, M D M CM and of in the of a in 2016; Scholar, et for natural of in populations of in and in 2016; Scholar, et and of and in and 2017; Scholar et and of and in and 2017; Scholar plastic et for natural of in populations of in and in 2016; Scholar, in plastic in Scholar and plastic by in natural and in areas in the of Scholar, et for natural of in populations of in and in 2016; Scholar and are usually as in D N of from as of in a of Scholar of Scholar S C and of in and of Scholar HL M of in a in Scholar the The by for and in Scholar and P S S and of and in Scholar these in plastic waste, and the large of these highly anthropophilic vector tropical many of which effective plastic waste management is that more than half of the is of where plastic waste The global of the Rev Scholar to the S S et and of of the in 2021; Scholar the of plastic waste for their immature aquatic In addition to providing for these species, the of water generated by discarded plastic are usually and Plastic waste thus to of increasing their and the accumulation of plastic debris can water to a of stagnant can as a for disease such as potentially increasing the of L D on the of plastic their disposal and on a in 3: Scholar, M waste management in the Scholar, S in and the of water management for vector J. Scholar only discarded plastics a for their can shelter for such as for P K et for by in the Scholar, K for disease vector on and practices of in the Scholar arthropod-borne stagnant of water generated by plastic waste can waterborne diseases such as Scholar as as and infectious be to Scholar such as or as and can their in discarded JR et of in environmental to and to 2017; Scholar Similarly, debris can for these with the to increase the disease burden. The is for where which is for was able to a on plastic in in L C K In of a of from Scholar, M M AM of microplastics in Scholar, S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar Similarly, a of up can colonise plastic and harmful and bacteria such as for can on plastic M M AM of microplastics in Scholar, S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar this material is for a in the it can as a in infectious and S et for potentially pathogenic on microplastic Environ 2016; Scholar waterborne diseases generated from plastic affect potentially back development and local and potentially et to in Scholar plastic waste to a increase in for a of in countries, attributed to a of and and of and and of highly pathogenic and its in accessed: September 2021Google Scholar to be by Scholar of waterborne diseases is to increase with the increase in plastic plastics a habitat for vector species, by providing a habitat for the development of their immature increasing the of and by providing the with In the of water that in or to plastic waste can waterborne such as or causing a on and livestock the generation of plastic waste, the by these infectious diseases will of the will in S of of Scholar and more effective waste management especially in tropical more will be to infectious global such as plastic can be and waste pollution and management in Environ Chem Eng. 2021; Scholar, et plastic pollution to and Eng J. 2021; Scholar, et and plastic waste management on and of single-use plastics and Scholar and waste management strategies have plastic waste management many middle-income countries have have put their populations with problem in the of arthropod-borne or waterborne plastics a circular JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar that encourage a more and JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar, C of and the of management of waste in Environ Scholar, The of waste Scholar, for the Environ 2016; Scholar, waste management in and to waste management a 126: Scholar, et of waste management by life in Environ 2018; Scholar As plastic pollution the will a the of plastic waste on infectious disease and is This of and is to the of transdisciplinary and approach studies on this the ever-growing of the is and and to the of the and in about the and of the the of the to the and the