Advanced chromatographic techniques for assessing human-relevant exposure pathways to micro- and nanoplastics

Concerns surrounding micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have increased as a result of their pervasive distribution in the environment and the possible threats they pose. Precise identification and quantification of MNPs are essential for evaluating their environmental fate, transformation mechanisms, and potential health impacts on humans. The escalating presence of MNPs in consumer products has heightened scientific concern regarding potential human exposure. This review integrates chromatographic workflows with human-relevant exposure pathways (air, water, food, cosmetics, human tissues). Compared with previous reviews that focus mainly on environmental detection or specific techniques, we emphasize methodological advances, and quality assurance challenges. Our synthesis highlights that pyrolysis coupled with chromatography mass spectrometry and thermal extraction-desorption gas chromatography provide bulk quantitative data and polymer-specific fingerprints, even when particles are below the visualisation threshold, while liquid chromatography based workflows are emerging for additives and degradation products. Current evidence indicates that ingestion is the dominant exposure pathway, followed by inhalation, while dermal uptake remains comparatively limited and less well-established. Despite continuous progress, knowledge gaps remain, particularly in cosmetics analysis, where chromatographic applications are scarce compared to food, water, and air. Standardisation issues, matrix interferences, and toxicological interpretation challenges were also discussed. In general, the review emphasises the growing importance of the chromatographic analysis in elucidating the sources, pathways, and health implications of MNPs outline strategic directions for connecting analytical advances with toxicological and public health research.