Nanotechnology-enabled face masks: Balancing protection and pollution in aquatic environments

Face masks are widely regarded as essential tools for preventing respiratory infectious diseases, with the incorporation of nanofibers and nanoparticles significantly enhancing their antimicrobial performance. However, the same nanotechnology that strengthens their protective function also introduces complex risks. The extensive use and improper disposal of single-use masks have led to substantial environmental pollution. Discarded masks act as inadvertent conduits, releasing engineered nanomaterials and nanoplastics into wastewater systems through weathering processes. This represents a new and growing source of nanoscale pollution, which may exert cumulative effects on marine organisms and pose potential ecological threats. In light of these concerns, this review systematically assesses the balance between human health benefits and environmental risks associated with nanotechnology-enabled masks in aquatic environments. Furthermore, we explore feasible strategies to address the safety issue, including the development of biodegradable nanomaterials, improved mask designs to reduce emissions, and enhanced end-of-life management. It is crucial to align the application of such advanced masks with a sustainable and acceptable risk–return framework, ensuring that public health advancements do not come at the expense of environmental integrity.