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Tracing surface-adhered and internalized microplastics in leafy vegetables across urban and rural agroecosystems: Occurrence, characteristics, pollution indices, and exposure assessment

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Sadia Sultana Mitu, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Ismail M.M. Rahman, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Ismail M.M. Rahman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Yongkui Yang, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Md. Al Hasibuzzaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Ismail M.M. Rahman, Yongkui Yang, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Ismail M.M. Rahman, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Sadia Sultana Mitu, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Seiya Hanamoto, Seiya Hanamoto, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Yongkui Yang, Mohammed Tauhiduzzaman, Samina Zaman, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Sadia Sultana Mitu, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Samina Zaman, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Seiya Hanamoto, Samina Zaman, Md. Al Hasibuzzaman, Md. Al Hasibuzzaman, Samina Zaman, Shamima Islam, Samina Zaman, Md. Al Hasibuzzaman, Samina Zaman, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Dil Afroz Sultana, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Dil Afroz Sultana, Dil Afroz Sultana, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Jarin Tasnim Asha, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Yongkui Yang, Dil Afroz Sultana, Dil Afroz Sultana, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Shamima Islam, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Dil Afroz Sultana, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Shamima Islam, Samina Zaman, Ismail M.M. Rahman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Mahfuz Ahmmed, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Mohammed Tauhiduzzaman, Mohammed Tauhiduzzaman, Yongkui Yang, Samina Zaman, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Samina Zaman, Mohammed Tauhiduzzaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Marfiah Ab. Wahid, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Yongkui Yang, Marfiah Ab. Wahid, Samina Zaman, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Jarin Tasnim Asha, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Samina Zaman, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Samina Zaman, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Seiya Hanamoto, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Seiya Hanamoto, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Yongkui Yang, Ismail M.M. Rahman, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Tapos Kumar Chakraborty, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Marfiah Ab. Wahid, Marfiah Ab. Wahid, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh Gopal Chandra Ghosh Md. Al Hasibuzzaman, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Mahfuz Ahmmed, Samina Zaman, Samina Zaman, Gopal Chandra Ghosh

Summary

Researchers provided the first comprehensive assessment of both surface-adhered and internalized microplastics in eleven leafy vegetable species from Bangladeshi urban and rural agroecosystems. They found MPs in all vegetable types studied, with higher surface contamination in urban areas, and estimated daily human exposure through vegetable consumption.

Polymers

PE PP

Models

Human

This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of surface-adhered and internalized microplastics (MPs) in eleven commonly consumed leafy vegetables from urban and rural agroecosystems in Bangladesh. We aimed to systematically investigate the occurrence, characteristics, and human exposure risks of surface-adhered and internalized MPs in these leafy vegetables. Surface MPs were removed via a triple-step protocol of soaking, ultrasonication, and sieving, while internal MPs recovered through Wet Peroxide Oxidation (WPO) and density separation. Polymer composition was determined using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Total MPs abundance ranged from 0.69 to 10.52 MPs/cm² (mean 3.96 ± 2.58), with urban samples (0.92-10.52 MPs/cm²) significantly exceeding rural levels (0.69-6.96 MPs/cm²; ANOVA: p < 0.05). Washing removed 54-91 % of surface MPs, yet internal MPs persisted at 0.22-3.44 MPs/cm² (mean 1.29 ± 0.99). Fibers dominated the identified MPs (>88 %), which were primarily composed of polyethylene (50-53 %) and polypropylene (23-25 %). Multivariate analyses indicated rural contamination originated from agricultural plastics (e.g., mulch films), while urban sources included textiles and packaging. Pollution load indices indicated extreme contamination (Total MPs: 171.65-774.83, Internal MPs: 95.38-463.54), whereas polymer hazard indices suggested a moderate hazard level (Total MPs: 12.37-24.96, Internal MPs: 7.16-33.55). The estimated daily intake for adults (Total MPs: 4.86-106.71, Internal MPs: 1.86-39.38MPs/kg/day) and children (Total MPs: 7.20-158.11, Internal MPs: 2.76-58.35MPs/kg/day) exceeded values reported for other foods. These findings demonstrate that leafy vegetables are significant vectors for human MP exposure, underscoring an urgent need for improved agroecosystem management and enhanced food safety monitoring.

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