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Ingestion of car tire crumb rubber and uptake of associated chemicals by lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus)
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Researchers fed lumpfish crumb rubber particles from car tires and tracked the ingestion, retention, and chemical uptake in the fish over time. They found that the fish ingested the rubber particles and absorbed tire-specific chemicals, including para-phenylenediamines and their transformation products, into their tissues. The study demonstrates that tire rubber is a source of microplastic and chemical exposure for marine fish that may encounter runoff from artificial sports fields.
Car tire rubber constitutes one of the largest fractions of microplastics emissions to the environment. The two main emission sources are tire wear particles (TWPs) formed through abrasion during driving and runoff of crumb rubber (CR) granulate produced from end-of-life tires that is used as infill on artificial sports fields. Both tire wear particles and crumb rubber contain a complex mixture of metal and organic chemical additives, and exposure to both the particulate forms and their leachates can cause adverse effects in aquatic species. An understanding of the exposure pathways and mechanisms of toxicity are, however, scarce. While the most abundant metals and organic chemicals in car tire rubber have multiple other applications, para -phenylenediamines (PDs) are primarily used as rubber antioxidants and were recently shown to cause negative effects in aquatic organisms. The present study investigated the responses of the marine lumpfish ( Cyclopterus lumpus ) to crumb rubber exposure in a controlled feeding experiment. Juvenile fish were offered crumb rubber particles with their feed for 1 week, followed by 2 weeks of depuration. Crumb rubber particle ingestion occurred in >75% of exposed individuals, with a maximum of 84 particles observed in one specimen. Gastrointestinal tract retention times varied, with some organisms having no crumb rubber particles and others still containing up to 33 crumb rubber particles at the end of the experiment. Blood samples were analyzed for metals and organic chemicals, with ICP-MS analysis revealing there was no uptake of metals by the exposed fish. Interestingly, high resolution GC-MS analysis indicated that uptake of PDs into lumpfish blood was proportionate to the number of ingested CR particles. Three of the PDs found in blood were the same as those identified in the additive mixture Vulkanox3100. N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) was the most concentrated PD in both the crumb rubber and lumpfish blood. The transformation product 6PPD-quinone was detected in the rubber material, but not in the blood. This study demonstrates that PDs are specific and bioavailable chemicals in car tire rubber that have the potential to serve as biomarkers of recent exposure to tire chemicals, where simple blood samples could be used to assess recent tire chemical exposure in vertebrates, including humans.
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Ingestion of crumb rubber and uptake of associated contaminants in lumpfish (cyclopterus lumpus)
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Researchers exposed lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) to crumb rubber particles (2-4 µm) in seawater for 7 days followed by a 14-day depuration period, finding that fish readily ingested crumb rubber alongside food, with gut particle content peaking at day 8; non-target chemical screening and targeted analysis quantified organic contaminants including 6PPD-quinone and metals in blood and tissue samples.
Toxicological effects of micronized tire crumb rubber on mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
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Both mummichog and fathead minnow fish exposed to crumb rubber particles ingested the material and accumulated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in their bile, and high doses caused partial mortality in fathead minnow. The study demonstrates that tire wear particles can deliver toxic PAH compounds to freshwater fish through ingestion.
Bioaccessibility of Organic Compounds Associated with Tire Particles Using a Fish In Vitro Digestive Model: Solubilization Kinetics and Effects of Food Coingestion.
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Researchers used a fish gastrointestinal model to test the bioaccessibility of toxic organic chemicals associated with tire and road wear particles (TRWPs). They found that several compounds including benzothiazoles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were released from tire particles under simulated digestive conditions. This suggests that fish consuming TRWPs could be exposed to meaningful doses of tire-derived chemicals.
What Tires Leave Behind Can Become Toxic Fish Food
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Tiny bits of worn-down tire rubber end up in oceans and rivers, and new research shows fish will actually eat these particles—mistaking them for food. This can hurt the fish's growth and change how they behave, which matters because these same fish often end up on our dinner plates, meaning tire pollution could be quietly working its way up the food chain to us.
Chronic toxicity of tire crumb rubber particles to mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) in episodic exposures
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Researchers exposed mummichog fish to tire crumb rubber particles in episodic exposures mimicking stormwater runoff and found chronic toxicity effects including altered behavior and physiological stress, highlighting environmental risks from tire-derived microplastics.
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