Surface functionalization, particle size and pharmaceutical co-contaminant dependent impact of nanoplastics on marine crustacean – <i>Artemia salina</i>

Despite a significant amount of research on micronanoplastics (MNPs), there is still a gap in our understanding of their function as transporters of other environmental pollutants (known as the Trojan horse effect) and the combined effects of ingestion, bioaccumulation, and toxicity to organisms. This study examined the individual effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) with various surface functionalizations (plain (PS), carboxylated (PS-COOH), and aminated (PS-NH₂)), particle sizes (100 nm and 500 nm), and a pharmaceutical co-contaminant (metformin hydrochloride (MH), an anti-diabetic drug) on the marine crustacean - <i>Artemia salina</i>. The study specifically aimed to determine if MH alters the detrimental effects of PSNPs on <i>A. salina</i>. The potential toxicity of these emerging pollutants was assessed by examining mortality, hatching rate, morphological changes, and biochemical changes. Smaller nanoparticles had a more significant impact than larger ones, and PS-NH₂ was more harmful than PS and PS-COOH. Exposure to the nanoparticle complex with MH resulted in a decrease in hatching rate, an increase in mortality, developmental abnormalities, an increase in reactive oxygen species, catalase, and lipid peroxidase, and a decrease in total protein and superoxide dismutase, indicating a synergistic effect. There were no significant differences between the complex and the individual nanoparticles. However, accumulating these particles in organisms could contaminate the food chain. These results highlight the potential environmental risks associated with the simultaneous exposure of aquatic species to plastics, particularly smaller PS, aminated PS, and pharmaceutical complex PS.