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Polystyrene Nanoplastics Elicit Multiple Responses in Immune Cells of the Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826)
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This study examined how nanoplastics from polystyrene affect the immune cells of earthworms, which play a critical role in soil ecosystems. Researchers found that the tiny plastic particles were taken up by the cells, triggered oxidative stress, weakened antioxidant defenses, destabilized cell membranes, and initiated early-stage cell death. The results provide cellular-level evidence that nanoplastic exposure poses ecological risks to soil-dwelling organisms.
The improper disposal of plastic products/wastes can lead to the release of nanoplastics (NPs) into environmental media, especially soil. Nevertheless, their toxicity mechanisms in soil invertebrates remain unclear. This study investigated the impact of polystyrene NPs on Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826) immune cells, focusing on oxidative stress, immune responses, apoptosis, and necrosis. Results showed that 100 nm NPs were internalized into the cells, causing cytotoxicity. NPs were observed to inhibit cell viability by increasing reactive oxygen species, decreasing the levels of antioxidants (e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione), and inducing lipid peroxidation and DNA oxidation. Additionally, assays on neutral red retention time, lysozyme activity, and Ca2⁺ levels demonstrated that NPs resulted in a loss of lysosomal membrane stability and a reduction in immune resistance. The depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential and the results of the apoptosis assays confirmed that the NPs induced the onset of early apoptosis. The difficulty of the NP in causing cell death by disrupting the plasma membrane was demonstrated by the results of the lactate dehydrogenase release assays in relation to cell necrosis. This research provides cellular-level insights into the ecological risks of NP exposure on soil fauna.
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Molecular mechanisms of nano-sized polystyrene plastics induced cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity in Eisenia fetida
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Researchers studied how polystyrene nanoplastics affect earthworm immune cells and found that exposure caused significant oxidative stress, DNA damage, and weakened immune function. The nanoplastics physically bound to and damaged lysozyme, a key immune protein, impairing the earthworms' ability to fight off infections. Since earthworms are essential soil organisms, this immune damage could have cascading effects on soil health and the agricultural systems that humans depend on.
Toxicological effects of polystyrene microplastics on earthworm (Eisenia fetida)
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Researchers exposed earthworms to two sizes of polystyrene microplastics in soil for 14 days and found evidence of intestinal cell damage, oxidative stress, and DNA damage. The larger particles accumulated more in earthworm intestines, while both sizes triggered changes in key antioxidant markers. The study demonstrates that microplastic contamination in soil can cause measurable biological harm to important soil organisms.
Nanoplastics induces oxidative stress and triggers lysosome-associated immune-defensive cell death in the earthworm Eisenia fetida
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Researchers exposed earthworms to nanoplastics and found the tiny particles accumulated in their bodies, caused oxidative stress, and killed immune cells by rupturing their internal waste-processing structures (lysosomes). Positively charged nanoplastics were significantly more toxic than negatively charged ones. This study helps explain how nanoplastics damage living cells at a fundamental level, which is relevant to understanding their effects on any organism, including humans.
Microplastic pollution inhibits the phagocytosis of E. coli by earthworm immune cells in soil
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Researchers discovered that polystyrene microplastics inhibit the ability of earthworm immune cells to engulf bacteria through phagocytosis, both in laboratory tests and in soil experiments. The microplastics also caused mitochondrial damage in intestinal tissue and suppressed oxidative stress responses in immune cells. This is the first study to demonstrate that microplastic pollution in soil can compromise the immune defenses of earthworms, key organisms in soil ecosystem health.
Visualizing and assessing the size-dependent oral uptake, tissue distribution, and detrimental effect of polystyrene microplastics in Eisenia fetida
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Researchers investigated size-dependent effects of polystyrene microplastics on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) using particles of 70 nanometers, 1 micrometer, and 10 micrometers at various doses. They found that smaller particles were more readily taken up into tissues and caused greater oxidative stress and tissue damage. The study suggests that nanoscale plastic particles may pose higher ecological risks to soil organisms than larger microplastics due to their enhanced ability to penetrate biological barriers.
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