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Repeated exposure to polyethylene microplastic mixtures containing PFAS and bisphenols reshapes inflammatory responses in THP-1 macrophages
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Repeated exposure to polyethylene microplastic mixtures containing PFAS and bisphenols activates THP-1 macrophages with inflammatory features
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Researchers exposed THP-1 macrophages repeatedly to polyethylene microplastics combined with PFAS and bisphenol additives to more accurately simulate real-world human contamination. The study found that repeated exposure activated macrophages with inflammatory features, suggesting that the combination of microplastics and their chemical additives may trigger immune responses in human cells.
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This review examined how microplastics act as vectors for PFAS—so-called forever chemicals—by adsorbing and transporting these compounds through aquatic and terrestrial environments to increase combined toxic burden. The co-exposure risk is particularly concerning for human health because both microplastics and PFAS are persistent, and their interaction may amplify systemic toxicity beyond what either pollutant causes alone.
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Researchers exposed zebrafish larvae to combined polyethylene terephthalate microplastics and PFOA and found that co-exposure triggered oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, neurological impairment, and metabolic disruption, with gene expression changes indicating additive toxicity beyond either contaminant alone.
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Co-exposure of zebrafish larvae to polystyrene microplastics combined with bisphenol A or F increased larval lethality by 7–51% compared to either pollutant alone, while also causing stronger behavioral effects including reduced movement and activity. This synergistic toxicity — not seen in embryos — highlights the danger of treating microplastics and chemical contaminants as independent hazards, since real-world exposures are always mixed.
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