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From micro to macro: legal tools for combating plastic pollution at national, EU, and international levels
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Researchers analyzed how laws at the national, European Union, and international levels have evolved to address microplastic pollution, tracing the shift from voluntary guidelines to binding rules like the EU's 2023 restriction on synthetic microparticles. The review identifies ongoing challenges — including inconsistent definitions and weak enforcement — and calls for stronger global governance to close the legal gaps.
Abstract Plastic pollution has emerged as one of the most pressing and multifaceted environmental challenges of the twenty-first century, largely due to its pervasive environmental persistence, ecological impact, and systemic threat to planetary boundaries. Among the various forms of plastic contaminants, microplastics , minute plastic particles typically smaller than 5 mm, have gained prominence as particularly insidious pollutants. These particles originate from the degradation of larger plastic debris or are intentionally manufactured for use in consumer products. Their widespread environmental presence has raised significant concerns regarding ecological integrity, human health risks, and the adequacy of current regulatory systems. This article undertakes a detailed legal and policy-oriented analysis of the regulatory responses to microplastic pollution at national, European Union (EU), and international levels. It systematically traces the evolution of the legal frameworks governing microplastics, beginning with early non-binding soft law instruments and fragmented sectoral regulations. Particular emphasis is placed on the progression toward more comprehensive and enforceable legislation, culminating in the 2023 EU REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles. The analysis highlights several critical legal and scientific challenges. These include definitional ambiguities regarding microplastics, the tension between fostering innovation and applying the precautionary principle, and the persistent difficulties in harmonizing enforcement mechanisms across jurisdictions. The paper also compares the EU’s regulatory developments with parallel international efforts, such as the amendments to the Basel Convention addressing plastic waste and the ongoing negotiations toward a binding global treaty on plastic pollution. In addition, the article scrutinizes the complexities of the international plastic trade and the policy dilemmas it presents, particularly in relation to regulatory coherence and compliance. The interplay between domestic legislation and transboundary environmental governance is critically assessed to reveal inconsistencies and legal vacuums that undermine regulatory efficacy. Finally, the paper identifies key opportunities for enhancing multilevel governance through improved legal design. By contextualizing legal instruments within broader policy frameworks, it offers strategic insights for strengthening regulatory responses to microplastic pollution in a globally interconnected and environmentally constrained world.
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