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The hidden costs of biodegradable plastics: Environmental persistence, microplastic toxicity, and implications for sustainable development
Summary
"Biodegradable" doesn't always mean it actually breaks down quickly in the real world, this review of existing research finds that many so-called eco-friendly plastics still break into tiny micro- and nanoplastic particles that can stick around in the environment for a long time. These particles have been linked to inflammation, hormone disruption, and cell damage in animals, meaning the "green" label on some products may be giving people false confidence about their safety and environmental impact.
Background: Biodegradable plastics are widely promoted as environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional plastics, yet their real-world environmental benefits are often overstated relative to performance under standard certification conditions. This narrative review examines the gap between biodegradability certification standards and degradation under real-world conditions, the formation of microplastics and nanoplastics from biodegradable polymers, their toxicological effects, and the implications for sustainability policy. Methods: Literature was retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar and synthesised narratively across four themes: polymer chemistry and certification, micro- and nanoplastic generation, ecotoxicological evidence, and policy implications. Findings: Common bioplastics, including polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and starch-based polymers, frequently degrade slowly in natural environments and can fragment into persistent microplastics and nanoplastics; these particles have been associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, endocrine disruption, and ecological harm across multiple biological levels of organisation. Conclusion: Biodegradable plastics can contribute to reducing plastic pollution, but their benefits are conditional on effective waste management, stronger regulatory oversight, and informed use; a systems-based approach combining material certification, infrastructure, and governance is required for genuine environmental sustainability. Novelty/Originality of this article: This review integrates evidence from polymer chemistry, environmental toxicology, and sustainability policy into a three-layer systems framework (material certification, waste infrastructure, and governance) for evaluating the genuine environmental benefit of biodegradable plastics, an integrative perspective that is largely absent from single-discipline treatments of the topic.