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Sex-dependent physiological and molecular responses of Salix variegata to polystyrene nanoplastics: an organ-resolved analysis
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Scientists exposed male and female willow plants to nanoplastic particles in water and found that the plants' stress responses—like root growth and antioxidant activity—differed depending on the plant's sex, not just the pollution level. This matters because it shows nanoplastics can disrupt plants in complex, sex-specific ways, adding to concerns about how these tiny plastic particles—already found in our food, water, and even blood—might affect ecosystems and, ultimately, the food chain humans rely on. That said, this study looked at willow trees in a lab setting, so more research is needed before drawing conclusions about broader environmental or human health
Polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) are emerging abiotic stressors, but their effects in dioecious woody plants and the role of plant sex remain poorly understood. Female and male cuttings of Salix variegata were hydroponically exposed to nominal 100-nm PS-NPs (0, 10, 50, and 100 mg L −1 ) for 21 d in 1/2-strength Hoagland nutrient solution. PS-NPs aggregated more strongly in nutrient solution than in ultrapure water, indicating that matrix-conditioned particle behavior should constrain interpretation. Across the concentration gradient, shoot growth and net photosynthetic rate changed little, whereas root architectural traits, stomatal-related variables, and oxidative/antioxidant endpoints were more responsive. Root architectural responses were broadly shared between sexes, but oxidative and antioxidant endpoints showed significant Sex × Concentration interactions in leaves and roots. Transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling at 100 mg L −1 revealed pronounced sex-associated interaction patterns, especially in leaves, where threshold-defined sex-restricted responses exceeded opposite-direction responses. Transcriptomic enrichment, metabolomic pathway mapping, pathway-level concordance analysis, and WGCNA together prioritized phenylpropanoid-associated metabolism as a candidate response axis linking secondary metabolism, redox-related processes, and sex-associated divergence. However, the data do not demonstrate direct cell-wall structural remodeling or field-scale ecological risk. These results show that nutrient-solution-conditioned PS-NP exposure induces sex-dependent and organ-resolved physiological, oxidative, and molecular reprogramming in S. variegata , highlighting the need to consider plant sex and organ context when interpreting woody-plant responses to nanoplastic stress.
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Sex-dependent variations in the immune status of the terrestrial isopod Porcellio laevis (Crustacea, Isopoda) as a response to environmental perturbation: a case of microplastic exposure in soil
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Scientists exposed small soil creatures (isopods, a relative of pill bugs) to microplastics and found that males and females responded differently, females showed immune changes while males showed changes in growth and protein levels, even at low microplastic doses. While this study is about bugs, not people, it's a reminder that microplastics can quietly affect living things' internal biology in ways that differ by sex, a factor scientists are increasingly finding matters when studying how these tiny plastic particles might affect human health too.
Polystyrene nanoplastics alter intestinal toxicity of 2,4-DTBP in a sex-dependent manner in zebrafish (Danio rerio)
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Researchers exposed zebrafish to polystyrene nanoplastics combined with an industrial chemical called 2,4-DTBP and found that the toxic effects on the intestines differed between males and females. In males, the nanoplastics made the chemical's gut damage worse, while in females the combination actually reduced harm compared to the chemical alone. The study highlights that sex-specific biological differences can significantly change how organisms respond to combined plastic and chemical pollution.
Polystyrene nanoplastics disrupt mouse placenta development in a sex-dependent manner.
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Scientists fed pregnant mice tiny plastic particles (similar to what humans are exposed to daily) and found they damaged the structure of the placenta, the organ that nourishes a developing baby, with male fetuses showing more harm than females. While this study was in mice, not humans, it raises real concerns about how the microplastics we're all exposed to through food, water, and air might affect pregnancy and fetal development, and suggests more research is urgently needed.
Sex-based differences in toxicity after exposure to microplastics or nanoplastics in aquatic and terrestrial organisms: A systematic review
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This systematic review found consistent sex-based differences in how organisms respond to micro- and nanoplastic exposure, with females often showing greater reproductive and hormonal vulnerability. These findings suggest that microplastic health risk assessments should account for biological sex as a variable, which has important implications for understanding human exposure risks.
Sex-specific toxicological observations following 28-day oral gavage exposure to spherical and milled polystyrene nano- and microplastic particles in mice
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Mice fed tiny plastic particles (like those found in food and water) for a month showed different health effects depending on their sex: males developed more gallbladder inflammation, while females had changes in their gut lining and mucus production. Overall body weight and blood tests looked normal, but the plastic particles did travel into the liver and intestines in both sexes, suggesting that even short-term microplastic exposure may affect male and female bodies differently, which matters as scientists work out what these ubiquitous plastic particles mean for long-term human health.
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