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Sources, Environmental Fates, Human Exposure Pathways, and Health Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics
Summary
Tiny plastic particles called microplastics and nanoplastics are now found everywhere—in our food, water, and air—and this review pulls together what scientists currently know about how they get into our bodies and what they might do once there. The concern isn't just the plastic itself, but that these particles can carry along other harmful chemicals (like BPA and heavy metals) and may disrupt hormones and metabolism, with the smallest particles even able to slip past the body's natural protective barriers. The research is still catching up, though—scientists don't yet have long-term human studies to fully confirm the risks, so this paper mainly highlights what we need to study
Plastics, valued for versatility and durability, have become pervasive environmental contaminants. Microplastics (MPs, 1 μm to 1 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, <1 μm) originate from the degradation or direct manufacture of plastics and are now ubiquitous in air, soil, freshwater, and marine systems, with documented entry into food, water, and the atmosphere. Beyond physical stressors, MPs and NPs act as carriers for hazardous chemicals, including bisphenol A, phthalates, persistent organic pollutants, and heavy metals, thereby amplifying their toxicological risks. These combined exposures are increasingly linked to metabolic disruption, endocrine interference, and multi-system health effects. Critical gaps include standardized methodologies, environmentally realistic exposure models, and long-term epidemiological data. Of particular concern is the toxicological potential of NPs, whose nanoscale dimensions enable them to translocate across biological barriers, raising concerns about neurological, developmental, and transgenerational impacts. This chapter synthesizes current knowledge on sources, environmental fate, human exposure pathways, and health impacts of MPs/NPs, providing a framework for risk assessment and highlighting priorities for future research and policy responses. Addressing these gaps will be critical for guiding effective regulation and mitigation strategies.