Microplastics at the crossroads of E-waste and the Environment: Pathways, risks, and future outlook

The swift escalation of worldwide electronic waste (E-waste), projected to reach 74 million metric tons by 2030, has heightened concerns about its plastic component, a significant contributor to microplastic contamination. Plastics, including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and polycarbonate (PC), account for 30–40% of electronic debris and undergo fragmentation, thermal deterioration, and oxidative weathering during informal recycling methods, such as open burning and acid leaching. These operations produce secondary microplastics and nanoplastics that include harmful chemicals, such as brominated flame retardants, bisphenol A, and phthalates, which interact synergistically with heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. The resultant particles pollute air, soil, and water, presenting ecotoxicological and human health hazards through inhalation, ingestion, and cutaneous exposure. Existing regulatory frameworks for E-waste and microplastics are disjointed, fail to address their intersection, and inadequately address polymer-specific hazards. Analytical hurdles, including particle heterogeneity, additive complexity, and the lack of defined detection procedures, further limit risk assessment. This review consolidates recent studies on microplastics originating from e-waste, emphasizing their routes, toxicity, and policy ramifications. It necessitates cohesive analytical, technical, and regulatory approaches aligned with circular-economy objectives to alleviate the escalating environmental and public health risks posed by polymer pollution from electronic waste.