Transformation and transport: polyvinyl chloride microplastics modulate fipronil accumulation and toxicity in zebrafish

Microplastics (MPs) frequently co-occur with organic contaminants in aquatic environments, yet their potential role in mediating contaminant transformation remains underexplored in ecotoxicological assessments. In this study, we investigated the dual role of poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) MPs (150-530 μm) as both carriers and reactive surfaces for the insecticide fipronil. Through adsorption experiments, transformation product analysis, and zebrafish dietary exposure trials, we demonstrated that PVC MPs adsorbed fipronil with a capacity of approximately 5.0 μg/g and promoted its transformation into fipronil sulfone (66.9-343.3 ng/g) and fipronil desulfinyl (0.66-0.96 ng/g). Following 14 days of exposure to fipronil alone (50 ng/g), zebrafish accumulated 0.17 ng/g fipronil and 0.30 ng/g ww (wet weight) fipronil sulfone. In contrast, co-exposure with MPs significantly increased their accumulation to 0.53 and 3.25 ng/g ww, respectively, and additionally resulted in the presence of fipronil desulfinyl (0.77 ng/g ww), which was undetectable in the fipronil-only group. Behavioral assays showed that both individual and combined exposures increased zebrafish locomotion, with synergistic effects observed during the initial 1-3 days. Moreover, combined exposure induced greater alterations in antioxidant enzyme activities than fipronil alone, highlighting the predominant role of MPs in driving oxidative stress. Principal coordinate analysis of enzyme and behavior metrics showed clear distinctions among the control, MPs, fipronil, and combined exposures, emphasizing the significant interactive effects between MPs and fipronil in aquatic organisms.