Additives of Plastic: Entry Into the Environment and Potential Risks to Human and Ecological Health

Plastics are indispensable in modern society owing to their durability, lightweight properties, and low production costs.However, most plastics are not composed of pure polymers; instead, they contain a wide variety of chemical additives, including plasticizers, bisphenols, flame retardants, stabilizers, per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), pigments, fillers, and processing aids.These additives, which enhance flexibility, stability, and functionality, are not covalently bound to polymer matrices and can leach, volatilize, or migrate throughout the plastic life cycle.Once released, they enter air, water, soils, sediments, food, and living organisms, where they persist or transform into metabolites with equal or greater toxicity.Biomonitoring studies confirm their presence in blood, urine, and breast milk, while environmental surveys reveal their ubiquity in rivers, estuaries, agricultural soils, and indoor environments.Toxicological effects include endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and carcinogenicity, with ecological risks such as bioaccumulation and altered species behavior.Regulatory frameworks remain fragmented and often lag behind scientific evidence, while substitution with alternative additives risks regrettable outcomes.This review synthesizes current knowledge on the classification, release pathways, occurrence, toxicological implications, and policy perspectives of plastic additives.It highlights knowledge gaps and underscores the need for coordinated global governance, safer-by-design strategies, and innovative alternatives to safeguard human and ecological health.