Review of the effects of two major plastic compounds in arthropods: a call for increased interdisciplinarity and further studies at the population level

Due to the massive use of plastics worldwide, plastic chemicals such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and bisphenol A (BPA) are ubiquitous in the environment. Concerns about human health promoted studies on the effects of those two chemicals on vertebrates, where they have been found to act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), thus affecting important biological functions under hormonal regulation (e.g. development and reproduction). While arthropods represent most of animal biodiversity and play crucial roles in aquatic and terrestrial environments, few studies have investigated DEHP and BPA effects on those organisms as compared to vertebrates. In this context, the present article aims at reviewing the known effects of DEHP and BPA on arthropods. DEHP and BPA affect various biological functions in arthropods, and could act at low doses and possibly induce long-term effects for organisms, but the mechanisms of actions of those chemicals in arthropods are still unknown. We discuss research gaps on this issue and ecotoxicology in arthropods in general: (1) the notion of DEHP and BPA as endocrine disruptors in arthropods; (2) the usefulness of behavioural studies in arthropods' ecotoxicology; (3) the need to better understand epigenetic mechanisms in arthropods and how chemicals could interfere with them; (4) the inclusion of the effects on arthropod's microbiota in ecotoxicological studies; and (5) the need to increase the use of integrative approaches, omics, modelling and adverse outcome pathways to better understand chemicals' mechanisms of actions in arthropods and the resulted adverse outcomes at population level.