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Tire–Road Interaction: A Comprehensive Review of Friction Mechanisms, Influencing Factors, and Future Challenges
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Researchers reviewed the complex interplay of factors governing tire–road friction, noting that emerging vehicle types and Euro 7 regulations restricting tire wear particle emissions are pushing the field toward AI-assisted real-time friction modeling and sustainable tire materials that balance grip, durability, and environmental impact.
Tire–road friction is a fundamental factor in vehicle safety, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability. This narrative review synthesizes current knowledge on the tire–road friction coefficient (TRFC), emphasizing its dynamic nature and the interplay of factors such as tire composition, tread design, road surface texture, temperature, load, and inflation pressure. Friction mechanisms, adhesion, and hysteresis are analyzed alongside their dependence on environmental and operational conditions. The study highlights the challenges posed by emerging mobility paradigms, including electric and autonomous vehicles, which demand specialized tires to manage higher loads, torque, and dynamic behaviors. The review identifies persistent research gaps, such as real-time TRFC estimation methods and the modeling of combined environmental effects. It explores tire–road interaction models and finite element approaches, while proposing future directions integrating artificial intelligence and machine learning for enhanced accuracy. The implications of the Euro 7 regulations, which limit tire wear particle emissions, are discussed, highlighting the need for sustainable tire materials and green manufacturing processes. By linking bibliometric trends, experimental findings, and technological innovations, this review underscores the importance of balancing grip, durability, and rolling resistance to meet safety, efficiency, and environmental goals. It concludes that optimizing friction coefficients is essential for advancing intelligent, sustainable, and regulation-compliant mobility systems, paving the way for safer and greener transportation solutions.
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A suite of experiments characterized how tire type, compound, and road surface properties influence tire and road wear particle (TRWP) size, morphology, and emission rates, finding significant variation across tire and road combinations relevant to predicting environmental exposure.
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Tire wear occurs via three mechanisms — cut-and-chip, fatigue, and chemical wear — each producing particles predominantly in the 2.5–10 µm range, directly relevant to new EURO 7 non-exhaust emission limits. Tire wear particles are a major source of microplastics in road runoff and urban environments, making understanding their size distribution critical for exposure and risk assessments.
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Researchers used a pin-on-disc tribometer to investigate tyre and road wear particle (TRWP) generation under varying urban load and sliding speed conditions, finding that airborne emissions were near zero under moderate conditions but increased sharply under harsh contact conditions, underscoring the importance of realistic test parameters.
On-Road Vehicle Measurement of Tire Wear Particle Emissions and Approach for Emission Prediction
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An instrumented measurement vehicle was developed to quantify tire wear particle emissions under real-world on-road conditions, identifying key driving parameters such as speed, load, and cornering that govern emission rates. The study supports the development of emission factors and regulatory standards for non-exhaust tire-derived microplastic pollution.
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This review summarizes the current state of science and technology for reducing tire and road wear particles (TRWP), which are generated by friction between tires and road surfaces. The study analyzed approximately 500 sources and assessed various preventative and end-of-pipe mitigation strategies based on their efficiency, maturity, and potential environmental impact.
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