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Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Potential Drinking Water Sources Globally: Distributions, Monitoring Trends, and Risk Assessment
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This study measures concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) across potential drinking water sources, documenting the extent of contamination from these persistent synthetic chemicals. The findings raise concerns about exposure risks and the adequacy of current water treatment systems in removing PFAS before consumption.
Due to widespread industrial applications and increased discharges, concentrations of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in potential drinking water sources have risen significantly, putting more people at risk of PFAS exposure. This study aimed to systematically clarify the occurrence characteristics (concentrations, detection frequencies, and temporal trends) of PFAS in global potential drinking water sources over the past decade, assess their oral exposure risks, and identify key PFAS species with high detection frequencies, high contamination levels, or high toxicity risks, thereby providing scientific support for the development of targeted control technologies and management strategies. This study systematically searched and reviewed the relevant literature published between 2014 and 2024 on PFAS levels in global potential drinking water sources, extracting data on PFAS concentrations, detection information, and sampling characteristics. Using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Reference Dose (RfD) for oral exposure as the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), we evaluated the exposure risks of eight specific PFAS via the Risk Quotient for Specific Contaminants (RQRSC) model and analyzed the annual detection trends of the top thirty PFAS with the highest detection frequencies. Regarding total PFAS contamination, China, Brazil, Germany, South Africa, and the Danube River Basin exhibited particularly high levels, with China being the most severely contaminated. Risk assessment indicated that 45.6% of global potential drinking water sources were at high risk (RQRSC > 1), while 48.4% were at low risk (RQRSC < 0.2). Among the evaluated PFAS, PFOA, PFOS, PFDA, and GenX were associated with higher toxicity exposure risks. For the identified key concern PFAS, it is necessary to simplify detection techniques, promote targeted large-scale safe treatment technologies, and explore intelligent monitoring tools to reduce regulatory lag, thereby effectively monitoring, preventing, and controlling PFAS contamination.
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Researchers reviewed the sources, distribution, and environmental risks of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in rivers and lakes worldwide, highlighting these highly persistent synthetic chemicals as critical emerging contaminants that accumulate in aquatic ecosystems and pose significant biological toxicity.
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Researchers reviewed 180 years of evidence on PFOA and PFOS — two of the most detected 'forever chemicals' (PFAS) in drinking water — finding that contamination rates increased sharply between 2018 and 2019, and that many developing countries still lack the regulations or technology to address the problem. The review calls for stronger global monitoring systems and improved filtration technologies to protect drinking water supplies.
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A comprehensive review of PFAS contamination in drinking water sources documents their widespread detection in rivers, groundwater, soils, and even military ammunition, highlighting carcinogenic, immunotoxic, endocrine-disrupting, and organ-damaging properties alongside the limitations of current detection and removal methods. This is directly relevant to microplastic research because PFAS chemicals are key components of many plastic formulations and readily adsorb to microplastic surfaces, making microplastics a vector for PFAS co-exposure via drinking water.
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This review comprehensively compiled information on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water, covering their sources, health effects, analytical detection methods, and remediation strategies for removing these persistent contaminants from aquatic environments.
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