Occurrence, Sources, Phytotoxicity, and Prevention and Control System of Phthalate Esters in Cash Crops: A Comprehensive Review

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are emerging pollutants which are widely distributed in agricultural environments, and their impacts on crops have attracted considerable attention. PAEs on crops can disrupt their normal physiological metabolism, deteriorate the quality of agricultural products, and pose potential risks to human health through the food chain. Here, based on existing studies, we consolidate recent findings on the occurrence, sources, phytotoxicity, and control measures of PAEs in cash crops. Specifically, the pollution status of PAEs in cash crops was investigated. PAEs enter plants through water, soil, the atmosphere, and packaging materials via wastewater contamination, the degradation of plastic waste, and emissions from industrial processes. PAEs can induce oxidative stress in cash crops, disrupt photosynthetic pathways, and alter soil- and plant-associated microbial communities, leading to physiological and metabolic disorders that significantly reduce the yield and quality of cash crops. Consequently, recent studies have explored and developed more advanced mitigation strategies, such as enzymatic degradation, the use of microbial communities, and the development of new treatment materials and technologies. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive assessment of current research on PAEs in cash crops and offers insights into existing challenges and future prospects for ensuring the quality and safety of agricultural products.