From correct waste management to health protection: a focus on nanotoxics.

Waste generation has increased drastically worldwide in recent decades. Less than 20% of waste is recycled each year, and one-third of all food is wasted. While a fair level of knowledge exists concerning the general risks, there are notable gaps in understanding specific aspects of human health risks related to improper waste disposal and recycling, such as plastics in all types of wastes, and metallic nanoparticles from urban and sanitary wastewater, representing both emerging pollutants with a broad range of human health impacts. Although general environmental risks associated with waste mismanagement are well recognized, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding the specific human health impacts linked to emerging particulate pollutants. In particular, microplastics and metallic nanoparticles represent critical contaminants of growing concern due to their persistence, mobility, and broad toxicological profiles. This narrative review synthesizes the current scientific understanding of microplastic and metallic nanoparticle pollution, particularly through urban and sanitary wastewater, their toxicological profiles, and the limitations of current recycling and circular economy strategies in addressing these issues. It examines the environmental occurrence, release pathways, and health effects of these particles, highlighting how improper waste disposal, recycling processes, and wastewater treatment inefficiencies contribute to their dispersion. The findings highlight the need for innovative waste treatment technologies and a more comprehensive approach to risk assessment, particularly within life cycle assessments (LCA). Overall, the review underscores the urgency of integrating particle‑specific metrics into monitoring frameworks and LCA methodologies to better protect environmental and human health.