Epigenetic impact of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Recent studies have implicated a novel link between exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and CVD. EDCs are a group of persistent compounds that can interfere with the body's natural hormonal processes, posing significant risks to both environment and human health. However, the impact and underlying mechanisms of EDC exposures on atherosclerosis are poorly understood, making it difficult to conduct rational exposure assessments. EDCs can affect CVD risk through multiple mechanisms, and epigenetic mechanisms are key mechanisms for environmental factor-elicited chronic diseases. Further, EDC-elicited epigenetic alterations may not only affect atherosclerosis development in exposed individuals but also lead to increased CVD risk in their descendants. In this review, we mainly focus on the current understanding of EDC-mediated epigenetic regulation and epigenetic inheritance of CVD. In addition, EDC-carrying microplastics and nanoplastics have emerged as significant environmental pollutants, and humans are ubiquitously exposed to these particles. We also discuss the potential impact of co-exposures of EDCs and small plastic particles on atherosclerosis and CVD.