Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Environment: Uptake, Bioaccumulation and Impact on Plants, Animals and Human Health

PFAS, the Per and Polyfluoroalkyl substances, are synthetic compounds characterized by their chemical and thermal stability. More than 14,000 compounds in this group with diverse physicochemical properties have been documented. Due to their unique oil-and water-resistant properties, PFAS have been extensively used since 1945 in various materials science applications, including refrigerants, fire suppressants, and in the textile, paint, electronics and cookware industries. Due to large-scale production and indiscriminate misuse of these compounds in various industries over the last six decades, these persistent pollutants pose a serious threat to the ecosystems worldwide. These compounds have been detected in all environmental compartments, including air, surface water, groundwater, river water, marine water, drinking water, soil, animals, breast milk, food chains, vegetables, fruits, fish, and other seafood. The major environmental sources of PFAS are industrial, household wastewater, and effluent from armed forces and firefighting facilities. PFAS in the environment adversely impact the health of aquatic animals, livestock and humans. In aquatic organisms, PFAS exposure is associated with reproductive toxicity, oxidative stress, metabolic disruption, immunological toxicity, developmental toxicity, cellular damage, and necrosis. In terrestrial animals the bioaccumulation of these compounds leads to endocrine disruption and alteration of the intestinal microbiota. Humans are exposed to these pollutants by consuming PFAS-contaminated plant produce and animal food and by drinking PFAS-contaminated water. In humans, it alters lipid metabolism, endocrine activity, thyroid gland, and mammary gland function, negatively impacts the immune system and increases the probability of lung and kidney cancers. In the 21st century, along with microplastics and antibiotic residues, PFAS are considered the most hazardous persistent organic pollutants. This review highlights the occurrence, uptake, bioaccumulation, and adverse impacts of PFAS on crop growth, aquatic organisms, terrestrial animals, and human health. The compiled data will help develop effective mitigation and management strategies for PFAS contamination.