Microplastics: Current Status in the Environment and Human Health Risks: A Comprehensive Review

Plastic particles under 5 mm in diameter, known as microplastics, represent a severe threat to environmental and human health. They originate either as primary sources (e.g., cosmetic microbeads) or secondary sources from the fragmentation of larger plastic debris. Microplastics have been detected in a vast range of environments, including terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and atmospheric systems. Their presence leads to bioaccumulation and biomagnification within food webs, and they serve as carriers for harmful contaminants, such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Environmentally, microplastics disrupt ecosystems, cause chemical contamination, and degrade soil quality. For humans, exposure occurs through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The toxicity of microplastics is linked to systemic health issues, inflammation, oxidative stress, and endocrine disruption. Despite recent scientific advances, significant knowledge gaps remain in the detection, quantification, and understanding of the fate of microplastics, particularly nanoplastics, in biological and environmental systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of microplastic contamination, its associated environmental and human health risks, and potential prevention strategies. It emphasizes the critical need for developing global processes, emerging technologies, and cross-border cooperation to address this escalating environmental crisis..