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Is the toxicity of nanosized polymethylmethacrylate particles dependent on the exposure route and food items?
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Researchers exposed the marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis to PMMA nanoplastics via waterborne, foodborne, and combined routes over 21 days and found that exposure route and algal food type significantly modulated population outcomes, with foodborne exposure sometimes yielding better performance than controls — highlighting the need for standardized nanoplastic toxicity testing protocols that reflect realistic ecological exposure pathways.
The environmental effects of nanoplastics-NPLs have been addressed mainly through short-term exposures to a few types of polymers, neglecting other NPLs that are economically relevant like polymethylmethacrylate - PMMA. This work aimed to assess long-term effects of PMMA-NPLs on the marine primary consumer Brachionus plicatilis, evaluating the influence of different exposure routes (waterborne, foodborne and both) and food items (Nannochloropsis gaditana and Tetraselmis chuii). Rotifers were 21 days exposed to: a) control, with clean medium and food-CTR; b) contaminated medium (8.1 mg PMMA-NPLs/L) and clean algae-MC; c) clean medium and contaminated algae (pre-incubated for 96 h on 8.1 mg PMMA-NPLs/L)-AC; and, d) contaminated medium and algae-MC/AC. Mortality (lx), total number of organisms (TN), fecundity (mx), populational growth rate (r), generational time (gt), and feeding rates were assessed. Effects on r and mx were found after 21 days. Organisms from AC had higher r than MC. MC/AC organisms performed better than control in all endpoints. Overall organisms fed with N. gaditana had higher TN, m and r than those fed with T. chuii. In the AC treatments, rotifers fed with N. gaditana had higher m. Results highlight that exposure route and food type may modulate NPLs' effects, supporting the need for standardization of assays.
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The effects of nanoplastics on marine plankton: A case study with polymethylmethacrylate
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Researchers tested polymethylmethacrylate nanoplastics against four marine microalgae species and a marine rotifer, finding median effect concentrations between 84 and 133 mg/L for algae and a 48-hour lethal concentration of 13.3 mg/L for rotifers, with species sensitivity distribution analysis suggesting PMMA nanoplastics are less harmful to marine biota than polystyrene.
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Researchers conducted a microcosm experiment showing that dietary exposure to nanoplastics — through eating contaminated leaf litter — more severely disrupts stream food webs than waterborne exposure, reducing microbial enzyme activity, lowering leaf lipid content, and decreasing river snail feeding rates by up to 17%.
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Researchers found that increased food availability reduced microplastic toxicity in the waterflea Daphnia magna, but this protective effect depended strongly on particle size, with the smallest nanoplastics remaining harmful even when food was plentiful.
Implications of exposure route for the bioaccumulation potential of nanopolystyrene particles
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Researchers compared how nanoplastics accumulate in zebrafish larvae depending on whether particles enter through the gut or through waterborne exposure via skin and gills. The study found that waterborne exposure led to broader distribution of nanoplastics throughout the body and longer retention, while orally ingested particles were largely eliminated within 48 hours.
Caught in Fish Gut: Uptake and Inflammatory Effects of Nanoplastics through Different Routes in the Aquatic Environment
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Researchers investigated how nanoplastics accumulate in zebrafish intestines through different exposure routes, including waterborne, foodborne, and combined pathways. They found that while foodborne exposure led to higher particle accumulation, both routes caused similar levels of intestinal inflammation and immune disruption. The study suggests that current risk assessments based on single-route exposure may underestimate the true danger of nanoplastic pollution in aquatic environments.
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