Risks Associated with Dietary Exposure to Industrial and Geological Contaminants from the Consumption of Foods Obtained from Marine and Fresh Water, Including Aquaculture

Aquatic environments have been a critical source of nutrition for millennia, with wild capture fisheries supplying protein and essential nutrients to populations worldwide. In recent decades, however, a notable shift has occurred with the expansion of aqua-culture, which now represents one of the fastest-growing sectors in food production. Aquaculture plays a key role in mitigating the depletion of wild fish stocks and ad-dressing issues related to overfishing. Despite its potential benefits, the sustainability of both wild and farmed aquatic food systems is increasingly challenged by anthropogenic pollution. Contaminants originating from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and domestic effluents enter freshwater systems and eventually reach marine environ-ments, where they may be transported globally through ocean currents. Water is an indispensable input not only for the cultivation of aquatic organisms but also across the broader agri-food sector. Consequently, maintaining water quality is paramount to food safety, environmental integrity, and long-term food security. In ad-dition to conventional seafood products such as fish and shellfish, foods such as those derived from microalgae are gaining attention in Western markets for their high nutri-tional value and potential functional properties. These organisms have been consumed traditionally in Asia for generations and are now being explored as sustainable foods and ingredients as an alternative source of protein. Contaminants of concern in aquatic food products include residues of agrochemicals (e.g., pesticides, veterinary pharmaceuticals), persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), as well as brominated flame retardants, heavy metals (e.g., mercury, cadmium, lead), and inorganic arsenic. In parallel, public and scientific attention has intensified around plastic pollution, particularly microplastics and nanoplastics, which are in-creasingly detected in aquatic organisms and are the subject of ongoing toxicological and ecological risk assessments. While the presence of these chemical hazards neces-sitates robust risk assessment and regulatory oversight, it is essential to balance these concerns against the documented health benefits of aquatic foods, which are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, high-quality proteins, vitamins, and trace elements. Furthermore, beyond direct human health implications, the environmental impact of pollutant sources must be addressed through integrated management approaches to ensure the long-term sustainability of aquatic ecosystems and the food systems they support.