Glossary

Age of Discovery -The period in history from the fi eenth to the eighteenth century when the European seafaring powers commanded the sea and 'discovered' other parts of the globe.Anachronism -An error of chronological logic or misplacement of chronology.Anthropocene -A period in history, the most recent geological epoch, in which the presence of human beings has made an imprint on the surface of the Earth by way of radioactive fallout, microplastics and heavy metals and influencing the Earth's climate.Bias -A prejudice against someone or something that leads to unfair attention or representation in research.Bipolarity -An international order with two dominant powers, such as during the period of the Cold War with the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.Capitalism -An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned (instead of by the state) and used to generate and maximize profit.City-state -Territorial unit based on a city and its immediate surroundings.Civilization -A complex society bound together by common rule, sharing a common territory, identity, means of communication and religion.Clash of Civilizations thesis -Theory developed by Samuel Huntington which distinguishes nine civilizations in the world (Western, Orthodox, Latin American, Islamic, African, Hindu, Buddhist, Sinic and Japanese) based on shared culture, identity and religion.It claims that future conflict will take place on the fault lines between these civilizations.Cliodynamics -Field of study based on quantification of historical phenomena and processes.An important exponent of this field is Peter Turchin.The term derives from Clio, the Greek muse of history.Cold War -Period between and where there was an active rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union based on di erent ideologies, capitalism versus communism.The confrontation remained 'cold' with the exception of a series of 'hot' wars in the developing world.Comparative Research Design -An approach to conducting research through comparison.This comparison can focus on di erent groups of people, time frames, locations, themes but also definition, concepts and theories.Constitutional Order -A political order based on a constitution.Usually based on a written foundational document to specify rights and obligations and also to inform norms, expectations and behaviors.Counter-Modernity -Intellectual movement against modernity which places emphasis, in di ering degrees, on the spiritual, nature, ethics and culture.The central idea is that Western modernity has lost all ethics and spirituality.Culture -The ideas and practices that award meaning to activities in human societies.Democracy -System of government by the people for the people.Democratic Peace Theory -Theory based on the insight, originally suggested by Immanuel Kant, that democracies do not fight war against each other.Democratic peace has had a large influence on foreign policy; the promotion of democracy is believed to act as a deterrent against war.