Micro- and nanoplastics as immunomodulatory vectors: synergistic interactions with pollutants and pathogens across aquatic food webs

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems have become a major environmental concern due to their ability to transport harmful substances and microorganisms. These minute particles, ranging from sub-micrometer to several millimeters in size, have a substantial surface area that enables them to adsorb various toxic substances, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. Additionally, their porous structure creates an ideal habitat for pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria and viruses to attach. Consequently, MPs and NPs serve as vehicles for the long-distance transport of these hazardous agents, increasing the exposure and accumulation of toxins in marine and terrestrial life. The combined effect of plastics, pollutants, and microorganisms can intensify the toxicity of contaminants and enhance the disease-causing potential of microorganisms. This interaction is particularly alarming in environmental health, as it may worsen pollution impacts, elevate the risk of disease spread, and pose significant threats to biodiversity and human well-being. Immune parameters are among the factors that MPs and NPs, in combination with pollutants and microorganisms, can affect, altering the immune system status in aquatic animals. This study aims to elucidate the interactive effects of micro- and nanoplastics with pollutants and microorganisms on immune responses in aquatic organisms. Gaining a deeper understanding of these intricate interactions is crucial for tackling the escalating environmental and public health challenges associated with plastic pollution.