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Perfluorooctanoic acid dominates the molecular-level effects of a trace mixture of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid in earthworm
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Researchers exposed earthworms to individual and mixed concentrations of PFOA and PFOS, finding the mixture was not simply additive in toxicity, and that PFOA dominated the molecular-level metabolic disruptions — particularly in amino acid and energy pathways — even when both compounds were present.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are an important class of emerging contaminants in the environment. Most studies on the impact of PFAS considered individual compounds; meanwhile PFAS mainly exist in soil as mixtures. To fill this knowledge gap, we investigated the impact of 200 ng/g of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS)as individual compounds and a binary mixture (PFOS+PFOA)on the survival, biomass, reproduction, and metabolites of earthworm (Eisenia fetida). PFAS significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the survival, biomass, and reproduction of E. fetida after 28 d of exposure, but the impact of the mixture was not additive. The bioaccumulation of PFOS after 28 d increased, while that of PFOA decreased when E. fetida was exposed to the mixture compared to the individual compounds. These bioaccumulation trends were partly attributed to changes in the soil distribution coefficient (Kd) of PFOS and PFOA when present in the mixture. Eighty percent of the statistically (p and FDR < 0.05) altered metabolites after 28 d were similarly perturbed by both PFOA and PFOS+PFOA. The pathways dysregulated are related to the metabolism of amino acids, energy, and sulfur. We showed that PFOA dominates the molecular-level impact of the binary PFAS mixture.
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Cellular toxicity and apoptosis-related responses to individual and combined exposure to microplastics and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) in Hediste diversicolor coelomocytes.
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Marine worms (Hediste diversicolor) were exposed to microplastics and PFOS, a persistent chemical, in sediment for 7 days. Combined exposure increased PFOS buildup in body fluid and caused cell damage, DNA damage, and changes in genes linked to cell death, with effects varying by measurement and chemical dose.
Ecotoxicity of single and mixture of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFOS and PFOA) in soils to the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa
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Researchers assessed the ecotoxicity of PFOS and PFOA — two common PFAS "forever chemicals" — on earthworms in European soils, finding significant harm to survival, growth, and DNA integrity at concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/kg, with additive toxic effects when the chemicals were combined.
Exposure to polystyrene microplastics and perfluorooctane sulfonate disrupt the homeostasis of intact planarians and the growth of regenerating planarians
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This study tested how polystyrene microplastics and PFOS (a "forever chemical") affect flatworms both individually and together. The combination caused greater DNA damage, disrupted nerve development, and interfered with the worms' ability to regenerate. Since microplastics can absorb and carry chemicals like PFOS, this research highlights how plastic pollution may amplify the toxicity of other environmental contaminants.
Nanoplastics drive toxicity under co-exposure with perfluorooctanesulfonic acid in human intestinal cells
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Researchers exposed human intestinal cells to nanoplastics, the industrial chemical PFOS, and their combination, and found that co-exposure caused more severe cellular disruption than either substance alone. Nanoplastics primarily damaged mitochondria while PFOS affected cell membranes and internal structures, and their combination triggered broader metabolic changes including disrupted amino acid and lipid metabolism. The study suggests that the interaction between nanoplastics and common environmental chemicals may pose compounding risks to gut health.
Combined exposure to microplastics and PFASs on earthworms: size and concentration effects
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Researchers co-exposed earthworms to polystyrene microplastics of two sizes (30 nm and 10 µm) and PFAS compounds for 21 days, finding that combined exposure suppressed growth rates by 65% relative to controls, caused more severe intestinal and epidermal tissue damage, amplified oxidative stress markers, and disrupted gut microbiota more than either contaminant alone—with nanoscale MPs producing the strongest effects.
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