The Environmental Rule of Law for Oceans

introduction: oceans under threatVarious economic activities have severe impacts on marine ecosystems.These impacts include habitat destruction; visible pollution such as plastic litter, particles and oil spills; invisible pollution such as microplastics, underwater noise, chemicals and nutrients; and hydro-morphological changes to the seabed.Additionally, climate change and greenhouse gas emissions adversely impact seas, coasts and people living in those areas.Climate change leads to changes in water temperature, acidification, intensifying algae blooms, rising sea levels and more frequent and intense flooding and erosion.In combination with threats posed by biodiversity loss, which is driven by climate change, pollution, over-exploitation of resources and the destruction of natural habitats, these impacts will severely challenge the resilience of marine ecosystems, and consequently, of societies around coastlines.Without urgent and coherent action, our oceans face an uncertain future.We still have a chance to protect and restore marine ecosystems if we act decisively and coherently and strike a sustainable balance between how we use our seas and how we protect them.Clearly, strengthening the rule of law for oceans is urgent.Many of our seas are among the busiest marine regions in the world, where multiple maritime sectors are competing for increased space.Complex multi-level and multi-sector governance landscapes have unfolded over several decades, resulting in a situation where existing legal and policy frames of reference contain overlaps, gaps, weaknesses and inconsistencies. 1 Authorities responsible for implementation and compliance are affected by institutional challenges, and actors may face a lack of clarity and predictability, while local communities and other stakeholder groups may not be