Preliminary characterization and probabilistic risk assessment of microplastics and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in garri (cassava flake), a common staple food consumed in West Africa

Recent studies reported bisphenol A (BPA) and propyl paraben (PrP) are found in human urine, blood, and breast milk samples as well as in food, packaging, socks, and clothes. This means that the two chemicals co-exist in consumer products, and humans are exposed simultaneously to the mixture chemicals. However, the studies on the mixture effects of the two chemicals on human health are not enough. This study was designed to elucidate the effects of orally administered PrP, BPA, and their mixture effects on the uterotrophic response using ovariectomized rats. In addition, the correlation between the uterotrophic response and tissue concentrations of the two chemicals was studied to investigate whether one chemical has any effect on the absorption, distribution, or excretion of the other chemical. Histopathology, hematology, and plasma biochemistry analysis were also performed to evaluate the chemicals' toxicological effects in the treated rats. Although a significant increase in uterus weight (absolute and relative) was observed in the positive chemical (17β-estradiol) treated group, there were no statistical differences in the uterus weight between the vehicle control and the chemical-treated groups. However, a slight increase in the endometrial glands and a change in the cuboidal to columnar epithelium of the endometrial epithelium were observed in the mixture-treated group. There was no significant toxicity in all treated groups by the hematology and plasma biochemistry analysis results. The results of tissue distribution showed that BPA was mostly detected in the liver while PrP was not detected in most tissues, and the BPA level was higher when the rats were treated with PrP than without PrP, suggesting that PrP may increase the absorption of BPA after oral administration.