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The Microplastic–PFAS Nexus: From Co-Occurrence to Combined Toxicity in Aquatic Environments
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This review examines the interconnected environmental behavior of microplastics and PFAS ("forever chemicals"), showing that microplastics can act as carriers, concentrators, and secondary sources of PFAS contamination. Researchers found that co-exposure to both pollutants often produces synergistic toxic effects in aquatic organisms, disrupting processes from photosynthesis to neurological development. The study argues that current regulations assessing these pollutants individually are inadequate and must evolve to address their combined effects.
The pervasive environmental contamination by microplastics (MPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represents a critical challenge of the Anthropocene. While historically studied in isolation, a growing body of evidence confirms that these pollutants interact to form a complex and dynamic MP-PFAS Nexus. This review synthesizes current knowledge to elucidate the multifaceted mechanisms of this interaction, where MPs act as vectors, concentrators, and secondary sources for PFAS. We detail how environmental aging and water chemistry modulate adsorption and transport, fundamentally altering the fate of both contaminants. Crucially, the review consolidates evidence demonstrating that co-exposure often leads to synergistic toxicity, disrupting physiological processes from photosynthesis in algae to lipid metabolism and neurogenesis in animals, with significant implications for trophic transfer. The nexus also presents formidable challenges for water treatment and soil remediation, while simultaneously offering opportunities for targeted destructive technologies like pyrolysis. Furthermore, we explore the emerging threats of this complex to human health via seafood and water, and the amplifying feedback of climate change. Finally, we argue that current regulatory frameworks, which assess pollutants individually, are inadequate and must evolve to account for combined effects. This review underscores the imperative to reframe MPs and PFAS as an interconnected pollutant system, necessitating integrated research and policy for effective environmental risk assessment and management.
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Microplastics as carriers of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in aquatic environment: interactions and ecotoxicological effects
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Researchers reviewed how microplastics serve as carriers for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), sometimes called forever chemicals, in aquatic environments. The study found that PFAS can attach to microplastic surfaces and accumulate in organisms through the food chain, potentially amplifying the toxic effects of both pollutants. The findings suggest that the combined presence of microplastics and PFAS poses a greater environmental and health risk than either pollutant alone.
Unraveling the complexities of microplastics and PFAS synergy to foster sustainable environmental remediation and ecosystem protection: A critical review with novel insights
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This review examines how microplastics and PFAS (sometimes called 'forever chemicals') interact in the environment, since both often come from the same everyday products. The authors found that microplastics can carry PFAS on their surface, and when organisms are exposed to both together, the combined toxic effects including oxidative stress and reproductive harm can be worse than either pollutant alone.
Toxicity of microplastics and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in sentinel freshwater models, Daphnia, Zebrafish and unicellular green algae: A systemic review
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Researchers reviewed 68 studies on how microplastics and PFAS ("forever chemicals") affect freshwater organisms like Daphnia, zebrafish, and algae, finding that both contaminants are more toxic at chronic low doses than in short-term exposures, and that combining them tends to amplify harm — while noting almost no research has studied them together.
The unheeded inherent connections and overlap between microplastics and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances: A comprehensive review
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This review reveals the overlooked connection between microplastics and PFAS (forever chemicals), showing that these two widespread pollutants often come from the same products and interact in the environment. Microplastics can absorb PFAS onto their surfaces and transport them through water systems, potentially increasing exposure for aquatic organisms and humans. Understanding this overlap is important because the combined effects may be more harmful than either pollutant alone.
Interaction of microplastics with perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water: A review of the fate, mechanisms and toxicity
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This review examines how microplastics act as carriers for PFAS ("forever chemicals") in water, with the two pollutants interacting through various chemical mechanisms that affect their movement through the environment. The combined presence of microplastics and PFAS raises concerns about increased toxicity, since microplastics can transport these persistent chemicals into organisms and potentially concentrate their harmful effects.
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