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Treated Wastewater as an Irrigation Source in South Africa: A Review of Suitability, Environmental Impacts, and Potential Public Health Risks
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This review evaluates the suitability of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation in South Africa, examining both benefits and risks. The study found that while treated wastewater can improve soil nutrients and fertility, elevated levels of salts, heavy metals, and microplastics from insufficient treatment processes may pose significant environmental and public health risks.
Availability of irrigation water during growing seasons in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) remains a significant concern. Persistent droughts and unpredictable rainfall patterns attributed to climate change, coupled with an increasing population, have exacerbated irrigation water scarcity. Globally, treated wastewater has been utilised as an irrigation water source; however, despite global advances in the usage of treated wastewater, its suitability for irrigation in RSA remains a contentious issue. Considering this uncertainty, this review article aims to unravel the South African scenario on the suitability of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes and highlights the potential environmental impacts and public health risks. The review synthesised literature in the last two decades (2000–present) using Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar databases. Findings reveal that treated wastewater can serve as a viable irrigation source in the country, enhancing various soil parameters, including nutritional pool, organic carbon, and fertility status. However, elevated levels of salts, heavy metals, and microplastics in treated wastewater resulting from insufficient treatment of wastewater processes may present significant challenges. These contaminants might induce saline conditions and increase heavy metals and microplastics in soil systems and water bodies, thereby posing a threat to public health and potentially causing ecological risks. Based on the reviewed literature, irrigation with treated wastewater should be implemented on a localised and pilot basis. This review aims to influence policy-making decisions regarding wastewater treatment plant structure and management. Stricter monitoring and compliance policies, revision of irrigation water standards to include emerging contaminants such as microplastics, and intensive investment in wastewater treatment plants in the country are recommended. With improved policies, management, and treatment efficiency, treated wastewater can be a dependable, sustainable, and practical irrigation water source in the country with minimal public health risks.
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This comprehensive review explores treated wastewater as an alternative irrigation source for agriculture in water-scarce regions. While treated wastewater can improve soil fertility and crop growth, the review notes concerns about contaminants including microplastics that can accumulate in soil and potentially enter the food chain, emphasizing the need for effective treatment technologies.
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This review pulls together existing research showing that treated wastewater used to irrigate crops often still contains trace drugs, hormones, pesticides, and microplastics that standard treatment doesn't fully remove. While reusing wastewater helps conserve scarce freshwater, the authors say better monitoring and regulations are needed to make sure these lingering contaminants don't build up in our food or harm health over time.
Reusing treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation: Chemical risks and local-scale mitigation strategies
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Using treated wastewater to irrigate crops can save fresh water and reduce fertilizer use, but this review of existing research shows it can also introduce heavy metals, harmful "forever chemicals," and even microplastics into our food supply. The good news: farmers can lower these risks with practical steps like treating soil and water on-site, choosing lower-risk crops, and timing water use carefully—though bigger, coordinated solutions are still needed to make this practice consistently safe.
Potential for nutrients reuse, carbon sequestration, and CO2 emissions reduction in the practice of domestic and industrial wastewater recycling into agricultural soils: A review
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This review examines the practice of recycling treated wastewater and sewage sludge as agricultural irrigation and fertilizer, assessing both the benefits of nutrient reuse and the risks from contaminants. While recycled wastewater can provide valuable nutrients and help reduce carbon emissions, it also introduces pollutants including microplastics into farm soil. The review highlights the need to balance the environmental benefits of wastewater reuse with the potential health risks from microplastic and chemical contamination of food crops.
The Occurrence and Fate of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants in South Africa and the Degradation of Microplastics in Aquatic Environments—A Critical Review
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A review of microplastic research in South Africa reveals a critical data gap: despite the country generating around 120 million tons of waste annually, there is almost no published information on microplastic concentrations in its wastewater treatment plants or freshwater systems. The authors argue that urgent monitoring is needed to support effective policy, given that South Africa's infrastructure is under increasing pressure from urbanization and industrialization.
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