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Microplastics in the Human Placenta: Mechanisms, Risks, and Futures-A Systematic Review
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Researchers reviewed current evidence that microplastics cross the placental barrier and affect fetal development through oxidative stress, inflammation, endocrine disruption, and epigenetic alterations, summarizing experimental findings linking prenatal and early-life exposure to neurodevelopmental, reproductive, and immune abnormalities — often in a sex-dependent manner — while identifying major gaps in human dose-response data.
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