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Antimicrobial resistance and microplastics in the water environment: Occurrence and strategies in Thailand
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This review pulls together existing research showing that Thailand's water sources contain concerning levels of antibiotic residues, drug-resistant bacteria, and microplastics, including tiny plastic particles found even in treated drinking water that wasn't fully filtered out during purification. This matters because drinking water with these contaminants could expose people to "superbug" bacteria that don't respond to common antibiotics, plus ongoing microplastic exposure whose long-term health effects are still being studied. The researchers argue that stronger government regulations are needed to better monitor and treat these pollutants before they reach the water we drink.
Emerging micropollutants (EMPs), such as antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and microplastics, are widely present in Thailand’s water environment. However, there are limited comprehensive reviews on their distribution. Regulatory frameworks to strengthen mitigation in environmental settings are also underdeveloped. To address these gaps, this review summarizes the impacts, current state, regulatory framework, and policy recommendations for EMPs in Thailand. EMPs affect ecological functions, human health, and the economy. Recently, eight target drug groups were identified for control in wastewater: aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, cephalosporins, macrolides, tetracyclines, quinolones, sulfonamides, and polypeptides. In 2024, Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae showed a significant increase in carbapenem resistance. The National Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Center (NARST) has prioritized four AMR groups: carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae , vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus , methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus , and colistin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. Across the water sources, ciprofloxacin and tetracycline were the most commonly detected antibiotics. The most frequently found antibiotic-resistant bacteria were Klebsiella pneumoniae (11.7–87.5%), Escherichia coli (6.7–24.9%), and Acinetobacter baumannii (2.7–6.7%). Common resistance genes included beta-lactams ( bla NDM, bla TEM, bla VIM), class 1 integron ( intI 1 ) , colistin ( mcr- 1), sulfonamides ( sul 1 , sul 2), and tetracyclines ( tet Q , tet 32). Microplastics in various water bodies was identified and highly remained in treated drinking water at concentrations of 22 ± 18 items/L, indicating incomplete removal during water treatment processes and raising concerns about potential human exposure. Furthermore, the solution of EMPs treatment and policy recommendation are also discussed. In practical terms, obtained results essentially increase the knowledge of EMPs within the country and develop significant solutions to fill the gap faced in the water environment worldwide.
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