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Soil to host environmental determinants fueling horizontal gene transfer and global AMR dissemination
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Bacteria can swap antibiotic-resistance genes with each other, and this review pulls together research showing that everyday pollutants—like antibiotic residues in water, heavy metals, farm chemicals, and even microplastics—make this gene-swapping happen more often. That matters because it means environmental pollution isn't just an ecological problem; it's actively helping create more drug-resistant "superbugs" that can eventually infect people, making common infections harder to treat with existing antibiotics.
Antimicrobial resistance poses a critical and escalating threat to global health, with horizontal gene transfer serving as a primary driver of resistance dissemination among microbial communities across diverse ecological niches. The three classical horizontal gene transfer mechanisms, including transformation, transduction, and conjugation, are complemented by supplementary routes involving outer membrane vesicles, gene transfer agents, and nanotubes. Both internal and external drivers synergistically influence horizontal gene transfer. Factors influencing the within-host microbiome include gut metabolites, antibiotic exposure, temperature fluctuations, and microplastic ingestion, while external environmental drivers such as antibiotic residues, heavy metals, agrochemicals, and micro/nano-plastics similarly enhance the mobility of antimicrobial resistance genes. The main mechanisms contributing to increased antimicrobial resistance gene transfer include elevated oxidative stress markers, altered membrane permeability, and stimulation of conjugation-related gene expression. The synergistic effects of these biotic and abiotic pressures have accelerated the co-selection of antimicrobial resistance genes and mobile genetic elements, intensifying the proliferation of antimicrobial resistance in both clinical and environmental reservoirs. Novel mitigation strategies such as conjugation inhibitors, bacteriophage-based interventions, and biochar amendments show promise in curbing horizontal gene transfer-mediated antimicrobial resistance; however, these approaches still lack insight into the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying horizontal gene transfer and often act non-specifically against different pathogens. Moreover, strategies utilizing biochar remain time-consuming and require further optimization. Overall, understanding the mechanistic interplay between environmental stressors and genetic exchange pathways is essential for developing sustainable interventions to counteract antimicrobial resistance. This review highlights the pressing need for integrated surveillance and ecological risk assessment to effectively manage the environmental aspects of antimicrobial resistance.
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Environmental pollution as a critical driver of antimicrobial resistance emergence
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Researchers argue that environmental pollution — including microplastics, antibiotics, and heavy metals — is fueling the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) by allowing bacteria to swap resistance genes in rivers, soils, and wastewater, yet most global AMR policies still ignore environmental pathways. The authors call for stricter discharge limits and better monitoring of contaminated environments as part of a One Health approach.
Effects of emerging pollutants on the occurrence and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes: A review
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This review examines how emerging pollutants, including microplastics, engineered nanomaterials, and pharmaceuticals, can promote the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment. Researchers found that these pollutants can increase the frequency of horizontal gene transfer between bacteria, potentially accelerating the evolution of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. The study highlights a concerning link between environmental contamination and the growing global challenge of antibiotic resistance.
Microplastics and their role in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in bacteria as a threat for the environment
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Researchers reviewed how microplastics act as breeding grounds for antibiotic-resistant bacteria by providing surfaces where bacteria can swap resistance genes with each other — a process called horizontal gene transfer. This dual threat of plastic pollution and antibiotic resistance is compounding into a significant global public health crisis.
The Role of the Environment (Water, Air, Soil) in the Emergence and Dissemination of Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective
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This review examines how water, soil, and air act as reservoirs for antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with microplastics highlighted as one of several agents that help spread drug-resistant genes across environments. The findings matter for human health because microplastics can carry antibiotic-resistant bacteria from wastewater and agricultural runoff into water supplies and food systems.
Microbial ecology of antibiotic resistance genes: a one health perspective
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This review pulls together existing research showing that antibiotic-resistant genes are spreading through soil, water, landfills, and even melting permafrost, not just from hospitals, but from everyday environments like farm soil and plastic pollution in waterways, where bacteria trade resistance traits with each other. This matters because it means fighting antibiotic resistance requires looking beyond doctors' offices to how we manage farming, waste, and pollution worldwide, especially in lower-income countries where tracking this problem is harder due to limited resources.
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