Co-mitigating tire wear particles and their leachates across the life cycle: A critical review

Tire wear particles (TWPs) and their leachates have emerged as a critical global environmental concern owing to high toxicity and substantial emissions. Recent focus is transitioning from risk recognition to mitigation, marked by EU limits on TWP emissions and multinational restrictions on N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD). However, these efforts often overlook the complex interplay between TWPs and emitted leachates, which is characterized by the source-to-sink coupling and the manufacturing trade-offs. To bridge this gap, we critically review life-cycle mitigation strategies for TWPs and their leachates. By dictating pollutant properties and shaping emission loads, tire manufacturing offers the most cost-effective and technological leverage through low-toxicity additives, enhanced abrasion resistance, and controllable degradability. At the generation phase of vehicle operation, emissions can be reduced by optimizing driving dynamics and intercepting TWPs through the coordination of vehicle manufacturers, road authorities, and drivers. Finally, end-of-pipe treatment is indispensable for capturing pollutants via the drainage system and enhancing degradation. Building upon these findings, we conducted a semi-quantitative evaluation of these strategies. Furthermore, we propose an economy-oriented, multi-stakeholder synergy management framework underpinned by extended producer responsibility, operational co-governance, and green infrastructure financing. Future studies require closing gaps in the TWP-leachate nexus and life-cycle assessments. This work provides a holistic co-mitigation roadmap for TWPs and their leachates.