Micro(nano)plastics in the total environment – A holistic review

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in the environment pose a significant challenge. They can accumulate at high levels in soil, air, water, sediments, and living organisms. Although long-term exposure to MPs can harm all living organisms, including humans, the transport, fate, and impacts of global micro(nano)plastic (MNPs) pollution remain poorly understood. This review provides a holistic perspective on the production, degradation, accumulation, and fate of plastic particles in the total environment and sheds light on their complex interactions within various environmental matrices. Filling a critical gap in the literature, it integrates insights from environmental chemistry, toxicology, and regulatory science to deliver an interdisciplinary understanding of MNPs pollution. The review provides an overview of global plastic production and recycling rates. It goes on to address the degradation and classification of plastic debris and presents methodologies for detecting plastic particles in environmental samples. It also examines the impact of plastic particles on living organisms, including humans. Finally, the review highlights existing regulatory frameworks relating to industrial production, as well as the analysis and detection of plastics in consumer products and environmental samples. By emphasising the key factors that influence the transfer and transformation of plastic residues, this paper provides insights for future research and policy development and presents innovative solutions, underscoring the urgent need for a coordinated global response to manage plastic pollution.